Many different fire extinguishers are sold in South Africa, some of which fail to meet the safety and quality standards that have been laid down by ISO and SABS.

Make sure that your family and property are safe by only buying extinguishers from a reliable supplier, and by making sure that your product carries the SABS mark of approval.

On 4 October 1996, in terms of a notice that was issued in Government Gazette # 17468, the following regulations were incorporated into the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) No. 85 of 1993: 1.

No user shall use, require or permit the use of a hand-held fire extinguisher unless designed, constructed, filled, recharged, reconditioned, modified, repaired, inspected or tested in accordance with a safety standard incorporated into these regulations in terms of section 44 of the Act.”

No person shall fill, recharge, recondition, modify, repair, inspect or test any handheld fire extinguisher unless a holder of a permit issued by the South African Bureau of Standards in terms of SABS 1475.”

To satisfy the new development, SABS 1475-1 had to be reworded and amended. Such rewording and emendation was performed to comply with the control measures set by the Department of Labour.

The result was the publication of the second edition of SABS 1475-1 in 1998. Both the South African Qualification and Certification Committee (SAQCC) and the first working group, which consisted of volunteers from the fire-fighting industry, were set up during a meeting which was held on 30 January 1997.

The establishment of SAQCC led to the once-off registration with the body, of all those who were responsible for the reconditioning of fire extinguishers.

The deadline for such registration was 31 October 1999.

The applicants for such registration had to be in the employ of a SABS 1475 approved markholding company.

The loss of the SABS mark by the company concerned could have resulted in SAQCC suspending the registration of the person concerned.

SANS 1475-1, which was published in late 2003, replaced SABS 1475-1, as a result of further amendments.

SABS then decided to refer to all standards as „national standards‟ changing the titles of the standards accordingly.

All reference to SAQCC had to be removed from the standard, leading to the following definition of a „registering authority‟: an “institution recognized by the appropriate government department (Department of Labour) for the registration of technical personnel involved in the reconditioning of fire extinguishers”.

The Department of Labour is, therefore, the only body that can currently appoint and recognize the necessary registering authority.

SAQCC is, at present, the officially appointed and recognized registering authority.

In addition, a person who is declared competent no longer has to be approved by SABS, but has only to be registered with SAQCC.

The implementation of such standards and regulation has been to the benefit of the fire-fighting industry as a whole, as both the service provider and the end user are legally obliged to comply with the requirements that have been set for them.

If the owner (the end user) uses a service provider other than a SANS 1475 mark-holder to recondition his or her fire extinguishers, both the service provider and the end user are guilty of an offence.

They can be fined up to R100k, and be sentenced to two years in prison, in terms of OHSA if they contravene such a requirement.

Such legislation requires that all hand-held fire extinguishers be serviced at least once a year.

Such a service may also only be undertaken by a SAQCC-certified service technician, who is employed by a SANS 1475 permit-holder.

The date of inspection should be recorded on a label, which is securely attached to the fire extinguisher in each case.

Periodic pressure testing of extinguishers should be undertaken by specialist Pressure-testing stations.

All extinguishers showing signs of internal corrosion or damage should be taken out of service and immediately replaced.

All hand-held fire extinguishers, regardless of type and size, must be recharged after use, or must be disposed of.

Do NOT undertake the maintenance or recharging of the fire extinguisher yourself.

Most countries worldwide have legislation in place to ensure that regular fire extinguisher maintenance is performed by competent fire safety professionals.

Lack of maintenance can lead to a fire extinguisher not discharging its contents when it is required to do so, or might even lead to the extinguisher rupturing under pressure.

Deaths still occur due to corroded extinguishers exploding.

SABS, in conjunction with all interested parties, was assigned the responsibility for developing the SANS 1475-1 standard, which regulates the production of reconditioned fire-fighting equipment.

The first edition of the standard was published in 1989.

The Department of Labour became involved with the fire-fighting industry in 1995.

The Department stated that, due to fire extinguishers working under pressure, which is hazardous, those regulations pertaining to vessels under pressure should also apply to such equipment.

If a fire breaks out when you are cooking with grease or oil in a pan, slide the pan lid over the flames to smother them, then turn off the heat and leave the lid in place until the pan cools down.

Do NOT try to carry the pan outside.

Extinguish other food-related fires with baking soda.

Never use water or flour on a fire that you are using for cooking.

To smother an oven or broiler fire, keep the oven door shut, and turn the oven off.

Where possible, work together in pairs when trying to extinguish a fire.

If the fire is too big and/or you are unsure about your own ability to extinguish it, evacuate the building through the closest escape route.

Assemble at the assembly point, or outside the property, to ensure that you are all safe and accounted for.

Be aware that smoke, which is a product of combustion, has the capacity to harm you long before the actual flames from the fire will.

It is, therefore, advisable, when moving through a smoke-filled environment, to do the following:
Stay as close to the ground as possible, as the meter of air above the ground tends to remain relatively smoke-free.

Move towards, and then along, the walls of the building, until you find a window or a door.

Use the back of your hand to feel your way along, as doing so will help prevent you touching live electrical sources.

If you enter a smoke-filled area with a line of fire hose or a hose reel, use the hose as a guideline to exit the area.

Breathe in through your nose and out through your mouth, as the hair follicles in your nasal passages attract soot particles, and so will help prevent your inhaling too much smoke.

If you are trapped inside a room in a building, stuff the cracks around the door of the room with towels, rags, bedding or tape, and cover any air vents to keep smoke out.

If there is a phone in the room where you are trapped, call the fire department again to tell them exactly where you are located.

Do this even if you can see that a fire engine has already arrived to put out the blaze. Wait at a window and signal for help with a flashlight or sheet.

If possible, open the window at the top and bottom, but do not break it, as you might need to close the window if smoke pours into your vicinity.

Be patient.

Rescuing all the occupants of a high-rise building can take several hours.

If you do attempt to open the door, brace your body against it while remaining as low to the floor as possible.

Slowly open the door a crack to check for the presence of smoke or fire in the hallway.

If you encounter smoke or flames on your way out, immediately return to your apartment or office.

Always use a stairwell, and never an elevator to get from floor to floor.

An elevator might endanger your life still further by stopping at the floor on which the fire is raging.

If you occupy a single room in a building, and the fire is not burning in the room in which you are located, leave the room, if it is safe to do so.

If you lock your room door, be sure to take your room key with you, in case the fire blocks your escape and you need to re-enter your room.

If your room opens onto a hallway, feel the door with the back of your hand to test how hot it is.

If the door is cool, crouch low on the floor, brace your shoulder against the door, and open it slowly.

 However, be prepared to close the door quickly if there are flames on the other side.

Then crawl through the smoke to the nearest exit, keeping in mind that the freshest air tends to be near the floor.

If your room door is hot, do not open it.

Instead, seal the door with wet towels or sheets.

Turn off the fans and air conditioners.

Call the fire department to give them your location.

Signal to them from your window, if possible.

In the case of a fire occurring in the engine of a car, get out of the car, taking the extinguisher with you.

Open the bonnet of the car carefully, taking care not to be overcome by smoke fumes, and immediately aim the fire extinguisher at the fire to extinguish it.

Do not first investigate the cause of the fire, as any delay in dealing with the fire might lead to irreparable damage to the vehicle.

In the event of a fire breaking out in the passenger compartment of a car, get out of the vehicle, taking the extinguisher with you.

Deal with the fire from the outside of the vehicle.

The same procedure should be followed when dealing with a fire that has broken out in a caravan, or any other vehicle.

Note that the instructions regarding the correct use of a fire extinguisher are given on the outside of the extinguisher.

Make sure that you study the instructions at the time of purchasing the equipment, so that you are fully aware of how to use it if a fire does break out.

Take care when dealing with a fire.

No generic action plan exists for dealing with all fires, due to the unique nature and characteristics of each fire, including where it occurs and its size.

However, the basic actions that can be taken in the event of a fire follow:
Maintain a range of fire extinguishers for different classes of fire, making sure that they are charged at all times.

Raise the alarm and call the fire brigade.

Immediately inform all other people who are in the building to evacuate it.

Do not try and put out a fire that you cannot control.

Obtain the most suitable fire extinguisher for the class of fire, and ensure that it is charged.

Use the correct activating procedure, always working in pairs.

Make sure that you can escape from a building in which there is a fire. When fighting a fire in a building, always ensure that you are between the exit and the fire.

When fighting a fire in the open, ensure that the wind is blowing onto your back.

Never tread in a flammable liquid spillage.

Do not go too close to a fire.

Remember that each fire extinguisher has its own limitations.

When you have put the fire out, make sure that it is completely extinguished.

If you are unable to extinguish a fire, leave the building immediately and close all doors on your way out to help contain the fire.

Get out of the building, and stay out of it until the fire has been completely extinguished.

Most important of all, never underestimate the severity and extent of a fire!

While waiting for the local fire department to arrive, position yourself so that you will not hamper the access of fire fighters to the fire when they arrive.

Make sure that an easy, uncluttered and quick retreat is possible, by staying close to a door or window, or windward of the fire.

Make sure that the fire is completely extinguished, and that there is no chance that the fire will reignite.

Be careful when using the extinguisher on burning fluids, as the high-pressure jet from the extinguisher can result in the splashing of the fluids concerned.

If the fluid gets onto your skin, it might cause burning.

In the case of electrical fires, caution must be taken first to turn off any electrical current before attempting to spray the charge into an opening in the electrical equipment in order to access its interior components.

Symbolic safety signs are split up into five different categories, of which each is recognizable by its colour and shape.

The five categories are the following:
The prohibition category consists of signs bearing a black symbol on a white circular background surrounded by a red circular border, crossed through with a red diagonal line. Some examples of such signs are those forbidding the use of cigarettes or cell phones.

The general information category consists of signs bearing a white symbol on a green rectangular background.

Some examples of such signs are those indicating the location of a shower or a clinic.
 
The mandatory category consists of signs bearing a white symbol on a blue circular background.

Some examples of such signs are those requiring the wearing of safety goggles or boots.

The warning category consists of signs bearing a black symbol on a yellow triangle, with a black border.

Some examples of such signs are those warning against fire and radioactivity.

The information regarding firefighting category consists of signs bearing a red symbol on a white rectangular background, surrounded by a red border.

Some examples of such signs are those that indicate where fire hoses and hydrants are located.

Safety signs must be placed where they can easily be seen, and are generally best placed above eye level, at a height above two meters.

All signs that are not self-supporting should be attached to flat-surfaced, or backing, plates.

Alternatively, they may be framed, provided that the frame does not dominate the sign and that the sign conforms to the size required.

If a sign is not adequately illuminated by means of natural lighting, or the building is occupied after dark, artificial lighting should be provided to illuminate the sign, or the signs should be self-illuminating.

Safety signs are used for informing the occupants of buildings about what and how to avoid hazardous circumstances, including fires.
 
Though you do not need to erect safety signs in your own home, you should know the basics about safety signs.
South Africa is a member of the International Standards Organization (ISO), which has published recommendations for the use of symbolic safety signs.
 
There are well over 100 accepted signs, which are collectively known as symbolic safety signs.
 
The safety signs are said to be symbolic because they each depict a symbol that either portrays a warning or some other safety feature.

The positioning of fire extinguishers is usually subject to various factors, and is subject to the outcome of a fire risk assessment; however, it is recommended that extinguishers are placed in conspicuous positions, which are not more than approximately 20 meters apart.
 
Extinguishers should be mounted on brackets that are no more than 1.25 meters from the floor, or on low shelves that are no more than 0.75 meters from the floor, as near as possible to exits or doorways and on staircase landings, or along the appropriate escape routes.
 
Ensure that the extinguishers are not positioned in such a way as to cause people to trip over them or to hurt themselves with them.
 
If you live in a large house, you might need more than one fire extinguisher.
 
Every house should be supplied with a garden hose or hose reel, either outside or near the back door, a dry chemical extinguisher near the garage or outbuildings, a fire alarm, a fire blanket and a fire extinguisher in the kitchen area.
 
An additional extinguisher could be placed in the foyer, depending on the size of the property.

In addition to the conventional fire extinguishers that are often seen in red containers, fire extinguishers also come in various other forms, such as in the form of suppression systems, which can vary from sprinklers, gas suppression, foam, and CO2 systems to argonite and FM 200 (halon replacement) systems.
 
Selecting the most appropriate application of fire-fighting equipment is the key to providing your family and/or employees with the best chance of containing a fire before it develops into a major incident, as well as of saving lives and property, and even the future of your enterprise.
 
Selecting the correct type and size of extinguisher.
 
Your choice of extinguishers is likely to be determined by, among others factors, the character and extent of the fires that you anticipate, the construction and occupancy of the individual property, the hazards from which you need to be protected, and the ambient temperature conditions.
 
Before buying your portable fire extinguisher, make sure that it carries the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) mark.
 
When in doubt, contact the SABS for verification.
 
In addition, always keep in mind that the larger the appliance, the more cumbersome it will be for the elderly, women and children to use when it is required for them to do so.
 
In a business, your choice of extinguisher will also be determined by the type of goods that you keep in the area concerned
Fire ratings must be displayed on the label of fire extinguishers, starting with the 1kg capacity appliance.
The fire rating is an indication of the capacity of a fire extinguisher to extinguish a fire, and indicates its capacity to extinguish Class A and B fires.
Always make sure that the appliance complies with the minimum performance ratings, as prescribed by SABS. The new fire ratings (see Table 3 below), which were introduced in 2009, come into force with effect from June 2010.

Fire blankets are fire-resistant, light and easy to handle.
 
You can use them to extinguish a fire on a person whose clothing has caught on fire, by wrapping the blanket around the body of the person concerned.
 
You can also use a fire blanket to cover a stove in the event of a pan fire, or even use one to cover yourself with in order that you might flee a building through its hot spots, if you have no other way out. Such blankets should be kept nearby any potential fire hazard.
 
Fire buckets
The water or sand in fire buckets can effectively be used to quell small Class A fires that are still in their early stages.
 
However, they are considered to be unreliable as a method of fighting fires.

The fire hose reel is also, by definition, considered to be a portable fire-fighting appliance, due to its extended hose feature.
 
Such reels are often available in a swing-type design, which offers an all-directional flexibility, or which else comes in a static installation.
 
Since the fire hose reel uses water, it is only effective against Class A fires.

Argonite extinguishers are identifiable by means of their green instruction label.
 
They are best suited for use on flammable liquid (Class A) fires and on electrical (Class C) fires.
 
Such extinguishers contain a blend of argon and nitrogen, which is stored in the fire extinguisher under the pressure of nitrogen.
 
When the blend is expelled, it is vaporized by the heat of the fire, producing a smothering effect, by means of reducing the oxygen content.
 
The vaporized liquid also interacts with the chemical combustion that takes place, which helps to extinguish the fire.
 
To use a vaporizing liquid or aragonite extinguisher, follow the instructions given under water extinguishers above.
 

To use a DCP extinguisher, follow the PASS steps (same method as with water extinguishers) in the following order:
Remove the safety pin (Pull).
 
Direct the jet of water at the base of the flames (Aim).
 
Squeeze the trigger of the discharge lever (Squeeze).
 
Keep moving the jet across the area in a sweeping motion (Sweep).
 
Only try to combat small, minor fires.
 
Keep in mind that the powder has no cooling properties, so that it does not prevent the re-igniting of Class B fires.
 
The dry chemical powder, which is messy, can damage electrical equipment, such as engines.

Dry chemical extinguishers are very effective for quelling Class B fires, as they can readily halt the spread of burning liquid.
 
Dry chemical powder extinguishers are identifiable by their blue instruction label, and are best suited to combating larger flammable liquid fires (Class A), though they can also be used on electrical fires (Class C).
 
They are often referred to as ABC dry powder extinguishers, due to their capacity to quell Class A, B and C fires.
 
The extinguisher is filled with powder.
 
Previously, mono-ammonium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate and purple-k were used, but the latest extinguishers are filled with potassium bicarbonate, which is kept under nitrogen pressure. Potassium bicarbonate is the only dry chemical fire suppression agent which is recognized by the National Fire Protection Association for firefighting at airport crash rescue sites.
 
The powder is non-toxic, odourless, has a white colour and is less corrosive than the predecessors. Powder is expelled from the extinguisher by means of the exertion of gas pressure, and is very effective as a knockdown agent for flammable liquid fires.

CO2 extinguishers are well suited for use on small Class B fires, as well as on Class C fires, since CO2 is a non-conductor of electricity.
 
Such extinguishers can be identified by means of the black instruction label that they bear.
 
They are considered best suited for fighting those fires which involve electrical equipment, but also effectively cope with flammable liquids, so that they are the best type of fire extinguisher to use on Class BC fires.
 
Such extinguishers deliver a high concentration of CO2 gas under pressure, producing inert vapour, which excludes oxygen and smothers the fire.
 
To use a CO2 extinguisher, follow the instructions that are given under water extinguishers above. CO2 extinguishers have limited cooling properties; hence, they provide no protection against re-ignition and are, consequently, considered to be ineffective in outdoor applications.

Foam extinguishers are well suited for use on small Class B fires to combat the spreading of burning liquid.
 
Such fire extinguishers can be identified by the cream-coloured label that they bear, and should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline and oil.
 
The foam serves to cool the fire down, to prevent the release of vapour from the fire, to prevent reigniting of the fire, and to smother the fire.
 
Such extinguishers are not suitable for use on flowing flammable liquid spillages.
 
Care must be taken with their use, as the foam that they use conducts electricity.
 
To use a foam extinguisher, follow the instructions that are given under water extinguishers above.
 
The disadvantage in using a foam extinguisher is that it contains foam, which is a ready conductor of electricity.
 
Its use can, therefore, be hazardous in the case of Class C fires, when there is an electric current present.

To use a water extinguisher, follow the PASS steps in the following order:
Remove the safety pin (Pull).
 
Direct the jet of water at the base of the flames (Aim).
 
Squeeze the trigger of the discharge lever (Squeeze).
 
Keep moving the jet across the area in a sweeping motion (Sweep).
 
Only try to combat small, minor fires.
 
The disadvantage in using a water extinguisher is that it can cause some fires, such as a petrol fire, to spread rapidly.
 
The water that is used in such extinguishers is also a ready conductor of electricity, and can be extremely dangerous in the case of Class C fires, where there is a live electric current present.

Water extinguishers have better cooling properties than do other fire extinguishers and can readily penetrate to reach a deep-seated fire.
 
A deep-seated fire is a fire which usually burns far below the surface in a duff, mulch, peat or other combustible as contrasted with a surface fire.
 
Water extinguishers are identifiable by their red instruction label, and are considered effective for dealing with Class A fires, as they cool down a fire.
 
Do NOT use them on electrical equipment.

Water extinguishers have better cooling properties than do other fire extinguishers and can readily penetrate to reach a deep-seated fire.
 
A deep-seated fire is a fire which usually burns far below the surface in a duff, mulch, peat or other combustible as contrasted with a surface fire.
 
Water extinguishers are identifiable by their red instruction label, and are considered effective for dealing with Class A fires, as they cool down a fire.
 
Do NOT use them on electrical equipment.

Water extinguishers have better cooling properties than do other fire extinguishers and can readily penetrate to reach a deep-seated fire.
 
A deep-seated fire is a fire which usually burns far below the surface in a duff, mulch, peat or other combustible as contrasted with a surface fire.
 
Water extinguishers are identifiable by their red instruction label, and are considered effective for dealing with Class A fires, as they cool down a fire.
 
Do NOT use them on electrical equipment.

A hand-held fire extinguisher is a portable appliance which is suited to handling by a normal person of average physical strength.
 
Such a fire extinguisher usually ranges from a total mass of as little as 1kg to about 23kg.
 
A fire extinguisher like this must be considered as „first-aid‟ fire-fighting equipment, due to the limited duration of discharge of such equipment.
 
A portable fire extinguisher consists of a metal cylinder, which is surmounted by a handle and a discharge lever.
 
Most such fire extinguishers come with brackets for mounting against a solid surface, such as a wall or the inside of a car.
 
The larger units come mounted on a trolley. By removing the safety pin and pressing the discharge lever, the fire extinguishing agent, called the „charge‟, is released.
 
Hand-held fire extinguishers include the basic types of fire extinguishers.
 
Keep in mind that you can put yourself in danger, or even increase the intensity of a fire, if you use the incorrect type of extinguisher on it.

Numerous different fire-extinguishing appliances are available, including, though not limited to, the following types of appliance:
1. Hand-held fire extinguishers
2. Water extinguishers
3. Foam extinguishers
4. CO2 extinguishers
5. Dry chemical powder extinguishers
6. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers / argonite extinguishers
7. Fire hose reels
8. Fire blankets
9. Fire buckets
10. Fire suppression systems.

Numerous different fire-extinguishing appliances are available, including, though not limited to, the following types of appliance:
1. Hand-held fire extinguishers
2. Water extinguishers
3. Foam extinguishers
4. CO2 extinguishers
5. Dry chemical powder extinguishers
6. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers / argonite extinguishers
7. Fire hose reels
8. Fire blankets
9. Fire buckets
10. Fire suppression systems.

Numerous different fire-extinguishing appliances are available, including, though not limited to, the following types of appliance:
1. Hand-held fire extinguishers
2. Water extinguishers
3. Foam extinguishers
4. CO2 extinguishers
5. Dry chemical powder extinguishers
6. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers / argonite extinguishers
7. Fire hose reels
8. Fire blankets
9. Fire buckets
10. Fire suppression systems.

Numerous different fire-extinguishing appliances are available, including, though not limited to, the following types of appliance:
1. Hand-held fire extinguishers
2. Water extinguishers
3. Foam extinguishers
4. CO2 extinguishers
5. Dry chemical powder extinguishers
6. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers / argonite extinguishers
7. Fire hose reels
8. Fire blankets
9. Fire buckets
10. Fire suppression systems.

31. Dispose of hot coals properly — douse them with plenty of water, and stir them to ensure that the fire is out.
Do NOT place them in plastic, paper or wooden containers.
32. Do NOT grill or barbecue in enclosed areas that are not fitted with the appropriate filtering devices, otherwise harmful carbon monoxide gas might be produced.
33. Make sure that all family members know that they must „stop, drop and roll‟ whenever a piece of their clothing catches on fire.
34. Build campfires in a secure area, where they will not spread.
Avoid lighting a fire near dry grass and leaves, which might easily catch alight.
35. Keep campfires small, and do NOT let them get out of hand.
36. Keep plenty of water and a shovel at hand with which to douse the fire when you have finished with it.
Stir the ashes once more, and then douse them for a second time with water.
37. Do NOT leave campfires unattended.
38. Routinely check your electrical appliances and wiring to make sure that it is in proper working order.
39. Frayed wires can cause fires.
Replace all worn, old or damaged appliance cords as soon as you detect that they are not in proper working order.
40. Use electrical extension cords wisely and do NOT overload them.
41. Keep electrical appliances away from wet floors and counters; pay special care to the regular maintenance of any electrical appliances that you use in your bathroom and kitchen.
42. Do NOT allow children to play with or around electrical appliances, such as heaters, irons and hairdryers.
43. If an appliance is fitted with a three-prong plug, use the plug only in a three-slot outlet.
Do NOT try to force it to fit into a two-slot outlet or extension cord.
44. Do NOT overload extension cords or wall sockets.
Light switches that are hot to the touch and lights that flicker must be turned off at once and professionally replaced.
Use safety closures to „childproof‟ electrical outlets.
45. Check your electrical tools regularly for signs of wear.
If the cords are frayed or cracked, replace them. Replace any tool if it causes even minor electrical shocks, as well as if it overheats, shorts or emits smoke or sparks.
46. Do NOT lock fire exits, doorways, halls or stairways.
Fire doors provide a way out during a fire, as well as slowing down the spread of a fire and of smoke.
47. Become thoroughly familiar with your building evacuation plan.
Make sure that everyone knows what to do if the fire alarm sounds.
Plan and practice your escape plan together.
48. Be sure that your building manager posts evacuation plans in high traffic areas, such as in lobbies.
Know who is responsible for maintaining the fire safety systems concerned.
Make sure that nothing blocks such devices, and promptly report any sign of damage or malfunctioning of equipment to the building management.

 

16. Do NOT keep gasoline in the house.
17. Keep curtains, towels and pot-holders away from hot surfaces.
18. Store solvents and flammable cleaners away from heat sources.
19. Do NOT leave any cooking unattended.
20. When children are old enough to cook without supervision, teach them how to cook safely. 21. Clean cooking surfaces to prevent food and grease build-up.
22. Turn pan handles inward to prevent food spillage.
23. Keep a fire extinguisher in the kitchen.
Make sure that you have the right type of extinguisher, and that you know how to use it.
24. Fit your home with a smoke alarm, and test it monthly to see that it still works.
25. Do NOT light fireworks indoors or near dry grass.
26. Do NOT wear loose clothing while you are using fireworks.
27. Stand several feet away from lit fireworks.
If a device does not go off, do NOT stand over it to investigate it.
Dispose of it, after dousing it with water.
28. Always read the directions and warning labels on fireworks.
If a device is not marked with the contents, instructions on how to use it, and a warning label, do NOT light it.
29. Continuously supervise the behaviour of children who are in the vicinity of fireworks.
30. Before using a grill, check that the connection between the propane tank and the fuel line are in proper working order.
Make sure that the Venturi tubes — in which air and gas are mixed — are not blocked.

You can prevent fires from starting by doing the following:
1. Always keep a fire extinguisher close by.
2. Keep matches and lighters locked up and away from children.
Check under beds and in closets for burnt matches, which might show that your child is playing with matches.
3. Teach your child that fire is a tool to respect, and not a toy with which to play.
4. Take great care when using portable heaters.
Keep bedding, clothes, curtains and other combustible items at least one meter away from all heaters.
5. Do NOT smoke indoors.
6. Close a matchbox before striking a match.
Hold the matchbox away from your body while striking a match.
Set your cigarette lighter on „low‟ flame.
7. Use deep, sturdy ashtrays placed on substantial furniture that is hard to ignite, such as on a solid-end table.
8. Do NOT leave cigarettes, cigars or pipes unattended.
Properly extinguish all materials that you use for smoking after you have finished with them.
9. Before you throw out butts and ashes, make sure they are fully out by dowsing them in either water or sand.
10. On visitors who have smoked leaving your home, check under the furniture and furnishings for any cigarette butts that might have fallen out of sight.
11. Do NOT smoke if you are sleepy, have been drinking, or have taken medicine or other drugs. 12. Do NOT smoke in bed.
13. Do NOT smoke in a home in which oxygen is supplied to a patient.
14. Be careful when using lighter fluid.
Do NOT add lighter fluid to an already lit fire, because the flames that may be produced in this way can flash back up into the container and cause it to explode.
15. Keep all matches and lighters away from children.
Teach your children to report any stray matches or lighters to an adult immediately.
Supervise the behaviour of children who are in the vicinity of outdoor grills.

Minimizing the risk of fires breaking out needlessly should be the number one priority in any fire safety strategy.
Good housekeeping, including such simple actions as: avoiding smoking indoors, regularly testing electrical appliances, removing electrical heaters, and training staff can help to reduce the risk of such fires breaking out.
Safety precautions like these should also be taken in the home.
As a home owner, you should always have an appropriate fire safety and evacuation plan in place.
As an employer, you should first undertake a fire risk assessment of your company.
By taking a few simple steps to reduce fire risks, you can prevent fires breaking out.
When you consider that 70% of businesses in South Africa that experience fire damage either fail to reopen, or close within three years, after a fire, taking the time to do a fire risk assessment makes sense.
Apart from the financial benefits to be gained from preventing the breaking out of fires, doing so is a legal requirement.
Though you are not legally bound to undertake a fire risk assessment at home, you, nevertheless, should take the necessary precautions in order to secure the safety of your family and any guests who visit your home.
Secondly, you should ensure that you have a well-defined and communicated fire evacuation plan in place.
Thirdly, you should take precautions to ensure that fires do not break out.

Fires spread by means of convection, radiation and conduction, in particular.
Convection:
Convection is the transport of heat by movement of the heated substance.
Over four fifths of the heat of a fire is dispersed by air and other gases in this way.
When heated, air becomes less dense than the surrounding atmosphere, and, when it is mixed with gases produced by the fire, moves upwards, forming convection currents which carry heat and smoke away with them.
The rising air is likely to be very hot indeed.
 
Radiation:
Objects in the neighbourhood of a fire are exposed directly to the radiant heat from its flames and burning fuel.
The closer these are to the fire, the greater is the intensity of the radiated heat reaching them, and the more likely they are of heating to ignition point.
Heat radiation sometimes causes clothes that have been placed to dry in front of a fire to ignite.
 
Conduction:
Although some metals, such as steel, can resist high temperatures without igniting, their presence in different components, such as in girders or partitions, of a larger burning structure will not necessarily check the spread of a fire.
Metal is an excellent conductor of heat throughout its length, and might cause combustible materials at the end that is opposite the fire to smoulder until they reach their ignition point.
A metal door, once heated, may ignite those materials that are in contact with the side which is not facing the fire.
Other factors that might influence the spread of fire are climatic conditions, such as strong winds, and the nature of the material involved.
The quantity of combustible materials that is present, any delay in intervention and the inadequacy of fire-fighting measures can also facilitate the spread of a fire.

For a fire to break out and to continue burning, which involves initiating and maintaining such a chemical reaction, the following three elements are required, the removal of any one of which will extinguish the fire:
Fuel:
Fuel consists of any combustible substance, no matter whether it is a solid, a liquid or a gas. Starving a fire of fuel will serve to extinguish it.
Heat:
A fire can only start when a certain temperature (the ignition point) is reached.
Once a fire has started, it normally maintains its own heat supply.
Cooling a fire down will extinguish it.
Oxygen:
Oxygen is usually in plentiful supply on our planet, as it makes up one fifth of the air that we breathe.
Blanketing or smothering a fire will serve to extinguish it.
If the rate of heat generation is less than the rate of heat dissipation or loss, combustion cannot continue.
For instance, if a match is applied to a block of wood, the heat from the flame will be absorbed by the mass of the wood, and the amount of heat will be insufficient to raise the whole block to its ignition temperature.
If the block is reduced to shavings, the surface area of a single shaving is high in relation to its weight, and it will easily catch fire.
Gases and flammable vapours are extremely dangerous, due to their large surface areas. Water is normally used for cooling down a fire, as it has the capacity to absorb a great deal of heat, and it is cheap and tends to be readily available.

Before discussing possible ways of preventing fires, we need to look into the different causes of the most commonly occurring fires.
The list of causes is not exhaustive, as it merely indicates the key risk areas that are likely to be encountered.
Open flames are the reason for 43% of the fires that break out in South Africa on a yearly basis.
The high cost of, and lack of access to, electrical appliances result in many South Africans having to make use of wood-burning alternatives.
Though camping is a popular pastime in summer-time, many campers do not take the appropriate precautions when lighting and extinguishing campfires.
 
Electrical fires, which constitute 8% of all fires, are a special concern during the winter months, during which time people tend to be more active indoors and to use more electrical appliances.
In addition, safe cooking procedures are not always followed.
Most electrical fires result from the use of faulty extensions and appliance cords and plugs. Quite often, electrical fires result from the misuse of electric cords, such as due to the overloading of circuits, the poor maintenance of equipment, and the running of cords under rugs, or across high traffic areas.
The home appliances that are most often involved in electrical fires are electric stoves, ovens, dryers, central heating units, televisions, radios and record-players.
The misuse of electrical apparatus and the carelessness and negligence of the user are the primary reasons for electrical faults.
 
Cigarette misuse and careless smoking are the number one cause of fatal home fires in the United States.
In South Africa, 6% of fires are caused in this way.
Cigarette-related fires also kill people who do not smoke.
Many fires are also caused by children playing with ignitable materials, such as lighters and matches.
 
Alcohol is quite often the cause of fatalities resulting from fire, with the victims of such fires being under the influence of alcohol at the time of the fire.
Alcohol abuse often impairs judgment, and can hamper evacuation efforts.
Be aware of such causes, making sure to prevent fires.
Fires erupt as a result of a chemical reaction, which is called combustion (and which usually involves oxidation).
Combustion results in the release of heat and light.

Fire statistics published by the Fire Protection Association of South Africa show that 376 South Africans died in the more than 40 000 fires that occurred in the country during 2007.
As many as 9 746 fires were reported to have occurred in private homes during the same period, resulting in losses of more than R573bn.
In addition, a total number of 1 675 industrial fires occurred, resulting in losses of more than R314bn.
Considering that the estimated population of South Africa is more than 48.6 million strong, such statistics represent a 1 in 1 200 chance of suffering the devastating impact of a fire.
There are time-tested ways in which to prevent and survive a fire. Rather than being a mere question of luck, such prevention and survival requires practicing and planning ahead of time.
Many people buy a fire extinguisher hoping that they will never need to use it, yet the possibility that one might have to deal with a fire in the home is sufficient enough reason to keep fire-fighting equipment at hand.
This information brochure is intended to serve as a guide to those who live in South Africa.
The brochure is aimed at assisting them in planning their fire protection strategy and requirements, be they in the home or elsewhere, keeping in mind that a fire might break out at any time.
Historical facts In 1723, the well-known chemist Ambrose Godfrey patented the first fire extinguisher in England in response to the urgent need for fire-fighting equipment that existed at the time. Godfrey‟s fire extinguisher consisted of a cask of fire-extinguishing liquid, containing a pewter chamber of gunpowder, which was connected to fuses which, when ignited, exploded the gunpowder and scattered the solution.
The modern-day fire extinguisher, which was first invented by the British inventor George Manby in 1818, consisted of a copper vessel containing potassium carbonate, which was surrounded by compressed air.
Following on such an invention, Francois Carlier patented the soda-acid extinguisher, which mixed a solution of water and sodium bicarbonate with tartaric acid, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.
 The soda-acid extinguisher, which was later patented by Almon Granger in the United States in 1881, operated by expelling water as a product of the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and sulphuric acid.
The pressurized water was forced out of the canister through a nozzle or short length of hose.
The cartridge-type fire extinguisher, which used water or a water-based solution, was invented in 1881.
In 1905, the Russian Alexander Laurant invented the chemical foam fire extinguisher, which resembled the soda-acid type of fire extinguisher.
In 1910, the Pyrene Manufacturing Company of Delaware patented a carbon tetra-chloride (CTC) fire extinguisher.
One year later, they produced a small, portable 0.6-litre extinguisher (see Fig. 2 below), which worked by expelling a jet of liquid towards the fire.
The container was unpressurised, and was operated by means of an integrated hand pump.
In 1928, Du Gas produced a cartridge-operated dry chemical extinguisher, which consisted of a copper cylinder, fitted with an internal CO2 cartridge.
The extinguisher dominated the market until 1950, when the ABC dry-chemical fire extinguisher was introduced into Europe.
Up to the present, fire extinguishers have come to play a vital role in the community.
As responsible adults, we are all required to take reasonable steps to ensure that we do not endanger the lives of others by ignoring potentially hazardous situations.

A hydrostatic test is a way in which pressure vessels such as pipelines, plumbing, gas cylinders, boilers and fuel tanks can be tested for strength and leaks. The test involves filling the vessel or pipe system with a liquid, usually water, which may be dyed to aid in visual leak detection, and pressurization of the vessel to the specified test pressure. Pressure tightness can be tested by shutting off the supply valve and observing whether there is a pressure loss. The location of a leak can be visually identified more easily if the water contains a colorant. Strength is usually tested by measuring permanent deformation of the container. Hydrostatic testing is the most common method employed for testing pipes and pressure vessels. Using this test helps maintain safety standards and durability of a vessel over time. Newly manufactured pieces are initially qualified using the hydrostatic test. They are then re-qualified at regular intervals using the proof pressure test which is also called the modified hydrostatic test.Testing of pressure vessels for transport and storage of gases is very important because such containers can explode if they fail under pressure.

Testing procedures

Hydrostatic tests are conducted under the constraints of either the industry's or the customer's specifications, or may be required by law. The vessel is filled with a nearly incompressible liquid - usually water or oil - pressurised to test pressure, and examined for leaks or permanent changes in shape. Red or fluorescent dyes may be added to the water to make leaks easier to see. The test pressure is always considerably higher than the operating pressure to give a factor of safety. This factor of safety is typically 166.66%, 143% or 150% of the designed working pressure, depending on the regulations that apply. For example, if a cylinder was rated to DOT-2015 PSI (approximately 139 bar), it would be tested at around 3360 PSI (approximately 232 bar). Water is commonly used because it is cheap and easily available, and is usually harmless to the system to be tested. Hydraulic fluids and oils may be specified where contamination with water could cause problems. These fluids are nearly incompressible, therefore requiring relatively little work to develop a high pressure, and is therefore also only able to release a small amount of energy in case of a failure - only a small volume will escape under high pressure if the container fails. If high pressure gas were used, then the gas would expand to V=(nRT)/p with its compressed volume resulting in an explosion, with the attendant risk of damage or injury. This is the risk which the testing is intended to mitigate.
Small pressure vessels are normally tested using a water jacket test. The vessel is visually examined for defects and then placed in a container filled with water, and in which the change in volume of the vessel can be measured, usually by monitoring the water level in a calibrated tube. The vessel is then pressurised for a specified period, usually 30 or more seconds, and if specified, the expansion will be measured by reading off the amount of liquid that has been forced into the measuring tube by the volume increase of the pressurised vessel. The vessel is then depressurised, and the permanent volume increase due to plastic deformation while under pressure is measured by comparing the final volume in the measuring tube with the volume before pressurisation. A leak will give a similar result to permanent set, but will be detectable by holding the volume in the pressurised vessel by closing the inlet valve for a period before depressurising, as the pressure will drop steadily during this period if there is a leak. In most cases a permanent set that exceeds the specified maximum will indicate failure. A leak may also be a failure criterion, but it may be that the leak is due to poor sealing of the test equipment. If the vessel fails, it will normally go through a condemning process marking the cylinder as unsafe.
The information needed to specify the test is stamped onto the cylinder. This includes the design standard, serial number, manufacturer, and manufacture date. After testing, the vessel or its nameplate will usually be stamp marked with the date of the successful test, and the test facility's identification mark.
A simpler test, that is also considered a hydrostatic test but can be performed by anyone who has a garden hose, is to pressurise the vessel by filling it with water and to physically examine the outside for leaks. This type of test is suitable for containers such as boat fuel tanks, which are not pressure vessels but must work under the hydrostatic pressure of the contents. A hydrostatic test head is usually specified as a height above the tank top. The tank is pressurised by filling water to the specified height through a temporary standpipe if necessary. It may be necessary to seal vents and other outlets during the test.
 

Definition - What does Hydrotest mean?

Hydrotest, also known as hydrostatic test, is a way of checking the integrity of pressure vessels such as natural gas pipelines, gas cylinders, boilers, storage tanks as well as fuel tanks. With the help of this test, pressure tightness, strength and any leakages are checked. This test ensures the safety of the cost intensive setup and the human life as there is a risk of explosion from pipelines, storage tanks, etc., if any leakage takes place.

Petropedia explains Hydrotest

Hydrotest involves a test which is performed with the help of water (which is why this test is called hydro) passed through the pipelines or tanks or any fuel carrying vessels in order to inspect any leakages in the material assembly. This test also helps in understanding the pressure loss inside the pipeline system. This is done by shutting down the supply valve and pressurizing the vessel at the required pressure. The liquid will flow inside the pipeline and simultaneously the pressure loss inside the pipeline is observed. This method helps the management in the deciding the installations of gas compressors over the large distance pipelines and estimating the numbers of compressors to be used so that gas can be compressed and transported over long distances at the required pressure without any pressure drop in the pipeline system.
Hydrotest or hydrostatic test is one of the most common methods used for testing the pressure vessels, pipelines, tanks, for any leakages and pressurization integrity of the system.
Some of the other important parameters which can be identified using a hydrotest are:

• Existing material flaws.
• Flaws in the mechanical properties of the pipe and stress corrosion cracking (SSC).
• Presence of active corrosion cells.
• Presence of any hard spots that can cause failure in long run when they come in contact with hydrogen.

Hydrostatic (Hydro) Testing is a process where components such as piping systems, gas cylinders, boilers, and pressure vessels are tested for strength and leaks. Hydro tests are often required after shutdowns and repairs in order to validate that equipment will operate under desired conditions once returned to service.
Furthermore, hydrostatic testing cannot be performed during normal operations and cannot monitor equipment for leaks after the test has been performed. On-stream equipment integrity is best managed by an effective fixed equipment mechanical integrity program.
Although hydrostatic testing is considered to be a nondestructive testing method, equipment can rupture and fail if the inspection exceeds a specified test pressure or if a small crack propagates rapidly.

How does it work?

Hydrostatic testing is a type of pressure test that works by completely filling the component with water, removing the air contained within the unit, and pressurizing the system up to 1.5 times the design pressure limit the of the unit. The pressure is then held for a specific amount of time to visually inspect the system for leaks. Visual inspection can be enhanced by applying either tracer or fluorescent dyes to the liquid to determine where cracks and leaks are originating.

Common Methods

There are three common hydrostatic testing techniques that are used to test small pressure vessels and cylinders: the water jacket method, the direct expansion methodm, and the proof testing method.

Water Jacket Method

In order to conduct a this method, the the vessel is filled with water and loaded it into a sealed chamber (called the test jacket) which is also filled with water. The vessel is then pressurized inside the test jacket for a specified amount of time. This causes the vessel to expand within the test jacket, which results in water being forced out into a glass tube that measures the total expansion. Once the total expansion is recorded, the vessel is depressurized and shrinks to its approximate original size. As the vessel deflates, water flows back into the test jacket.
Sometimes, the vessel does not return to its original size. This second size value is called permanent expansion. The difference between the total expansion and permanent expansion determines whether or not the vessel is fit-for service. Typically the higher the percent expansion, the more likely the vessel will be decommissioned.

Direct Expansion Method

The direct expansion method involves filling a vessel or cylinder with a specified amount of water, pressurizing the system, and measuring the amount of water that is expelled once the pressure is released. The permanent expansion and the total expansion values are determined by recording the amount of water forced into the vessel, the test pressure, and amount of water expelled from the vessel.

Proof Pressure Method

The proof pressure test applies an internal pressure and determine if the vessel contains any leaks or other weakness such as wall thinning that may result in failure.1 In the United States, This method is only permitted when the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations does not require permanent and total expansion values to be recorded.

Alternative Methods

Some equipment may not be designed to handle the loads required for a pressure test. In these cases, alternative methods such as pneumatic testing should be employed. Pneumatic testing is another type of pressure test that involves pressurizing the vessel with a gas such as air or nitrogen instead of water. However, special caution should be used when performing pneumatic testing as gaseous mediums have the ability to be compressed and contained in larger amounts compared to hydrostatic testing.

Notes on Hydro Testing

For pipelines, hydro tests are conducted while the pipeline is out of service. All oil and/or natural gas is typically vented off, and the line is mechanically cleaned prior to testing.
In any case, operators and inspectors should consider the properties of the hydrotest fluid medium and how the medium may have an effect on the equipment. For example, water is a good environment for corrosion to take place. Therefore, equipment should be properly dried and contaminate free before starting operations.
 

How many sprinklers can be used per zone or valve?

In order to determine how many heads you can use per zone, you need to know your water pressure and flow rate. At different pressures, the sprinkler head and nozzle will consume different amounts of water. For example, at 35 pounds per square inch (PSI) the 5000 Series Rotor using the 3.0 nozzle will use 3.11 gallons per minute (GPM). If your home's water capacity was 10 GPM, you could place 3 heads per zone. Consult the Performance Charts on or inside the box your sprinkler head came in for your head's exact performance data, or locate the performance data in the Support area of this website.
For a more technical overview related to system design and hydraulics, you can review Rain Bird's Landscape Irrigation Design Manual.

For a basic assessment of your pressure and flow conditions:

Check your water pressure:
Screw a pressure gauge onto the nearest faucet to the water meter. Make sure no water is running anywhere inside or outside your house. Turn on the faucet with the gauge attached. The gauge shows your water pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). You may also call your local water company to find out your water pressure.
Measure your home's water capacity (flow):
Get a measurable container, like a 5-gallon bucket, and make sure no other water is running in or outside the house. Then, turn the faucet on all the way and time how long it takes to fill the container. The flow rate in gallons per minute (GPM) is: 300 (which is 5 gallons X 60 seconds in a minute) divided by the number of seconds it takes to fill the container.
 
Fire Control Fundamentals
was created to introduce sailors to the basics of weapons fire control. The basic fire control principles of gun against a surface target are then applied to the control of Antiaircraft guns, Antisubmarine Weapons, Torpedoes, Rockets and Guided Missiles.

8 Often Overlooked Ways to Prevent Fire Outbreaks in Your Home

Always put off appliances when not in use

For those who go to work, put off all appliances at home to avoid voltage surge that may follow when power is restored after an outage. The same applies for the office when leaving.

Do not overload electrical sockets

Avoid overloading electrical sockets/outlets to prevent sparks that may lead to fire.

Do not smoke at bed time

This is for smokers. After a late night party or stressful day, it may be tempting to have stick just before bed. With the possibility of dozing off, there is a tendency to toss the butt anywhere while it has half-lit. If that lands on the rug or mattress, the consequences can only be imagined.

Do not use phones in the kitchen

In this era of phone and social media, many people go into the kitchen with their phones. The temptations are many. For one, an incoming call may provide a distraction too costly.

Fuel your generator before, not during a football match

With the recent league that has just begun, many football fans will be watching many matches. For one, PHCN cannot be trusted. Any plans for a backup should factor in sufficiently fueling the generator.

Do not be an emergency engineer or electrician

Avoid fixing electrical faults personally when you apparently do not have the skill. Violating the basic rule of aligning like charges can lead to a spark which may result in fire.

Get a Thunder Arrestor

Thunder storm delivers a huge amount of electrical charge. The work of a Thunder Arrestor is to safely lead this current away from the building to the earth to avoid fire. Get one.

Keep the candle on a candle stand

We put candles and leave them beside curtains or clothes or even on tables made from wood. The candle may fall off or a nearby object may get burned.

Fire protection companies, like State Systems, can install a variety of brand and manufacturer clean agent fire protection systems. Even if you have an outdated Halon fire protection system, certified fire protection technicians can use the standing structure and layout to upgrade to a state of the art clean agent system. Acceptable clean agents, like FM-200 and carbon dioxide, meet the standards for fire protection systems and are governed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
Clean agent fire suppression systems are ideal for business and organizations such as:

• Data centers
• Manufacturing plants
• Health care offices
• Collectible and antique stores
• Chemical storage
• Museums
• IT rooms
• Any many more!

FM-200 Clean Agent Fire Suppression System
The FM-200 fire suppression system is one of the most well-recognized and respected clean agent fire suppression systems in the world today. The best feature of this system is that it can reach extinguishing levels in 10 seconds or less, which allows the FM-200 to halt combustible, electrical and flammable liquid fires.
If you operate a business in tight quarters with limited space, you’ll be pleased to know the FM-200 is an excellent clean agent fire suppression system for you. The FM-200 agent is stored in cylinders as a liquid and pressurized with nitrogen, which makes for a highly compact fire suppression system. Conduct your business with minimal stress with the space-saving FM-200 fire suppression system.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Clean Agent Fire Suppression System
In addition to the FM-200 suppression system, State Systems specializes in CO2 fire suppression system installation. We’ll properly install a CO2 fire suppression system for your Mid-South business space, which will safeguard your sensitive electronic equipment, data center, filing room etc. against fires. CO2 fire suppression systems take advantage of the extremely high density of carbon dioxide to quickly and effectively suppress fires. These systems are completely safe and can be found in today’s industrial plants, commercial facilities and even aboard ships.
 

Fire protection systems sometimes harm – and even destroy – the very items they are intended to protect. Your intent with commercial fire protection is to prevent damage– not cause it. Clean agent fire suppression systems are an innovative approach to fire protection that protect the employees, assets, records, and equipment that are crucial to your Memphis-area business’s survival.
Company-debilitating damage is not always caused by fire, but the method of extinguishing fire that delivers a majority of the loss.
What Is a Clean Agent System? 
Clean agent fire suppression systems are waterless and deploy immediately without leaving behind oily residue or water that can damage irreplaceable assets.
It is important to understand how a clean agent fire suppression system works and how your business can benefits from this choice before selecting the best fire protection system. Not sure if a fire suppression system is needed for your office? Contact us today!

HOW DOES WATERLESS FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM WORK?

In order to minimize damage from a fire and also from efforts to stop it, clean agent fire protection systems use a gaseous agent rather than water to diffuse fires. In some cases, chemical fires cannot be put out with water or traditional fire sprinkler systems.
When a fire suppression system is installed, cylinders containing the clean agent (such as FM-200 or CO2) are stored separate from the protected area. They are connected to rooms throughout your office space through a piping network that connects to nozzles professionally spaced within each potential fire location. When heat or smoke is detected, an electronic signal is sent to the control unit to send the clean agent gas through the cylinders and piping network.
With technological advancements, the control unit for the clean agent fire suppression system can optimize the pipe valves to only send the clean agent directly to the hazardous zone. These systems also have the capability to link to audio and visual alarms, close vents and doors to prevent the spread of fire, and even turn off electrical equipment.
Once the clean agent reaches the room in which a fire has been detected (usually in less than ten seconds!), the nozzles will open and deflector shields can direct the agent toward a particular fire-filled zone. As the clean agent floods the room, the oxygen content is diluted enough to stop the fire and prevent combustion. This system can be a life (and asset) saver for your data center or archive library to limit the damage to your equipment and prevent the spread of a fire.
At State Systems, our professional and certified technicians can install a clean agent fire suppression system in your business or company’s office space throughout Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi. This fire suppression system includes the agent, agent storage cylinders, release valves, fire detection system wiring, piping, and nozzles.

BENEFITS OF CLEAN AGENT FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS

Some important features and benefits of clean agent suppression systems:

• Safety – A clean agent fire suppression system can be installed for both occupied and unoccupied rooms. In combination with its quick extinguishant and people-safe features, this system makes a strong case for protecting your most valuable resources – your employees.
• Waterless Protection – The clean agent stored in the cylinders flood the room as a gas that is harmless to both your employees and equipment. This means it will not damage electronics, files, or irreplaceable collectibles. This also means that there is usually very little clean up or residue after the fire has been put out.
• Fast Acting Protection – The system reacts within seconds to extinguish a fire in your business or organization’s building. It will diffuse the fire quickly and also minimize the amount of soot and smoke that fills a room during a fire.
• Concentrated Fire Damage – Because clean agent systems are so fast acting, damage from fire is usually limited to the specific machine or area that caught flame.
• Minimized Downtime – How long would it take for you to resume business after a fire? What would that interruption cost your Mid-South business? With a clean agent fire suppression system, there should be little downtime for getting your business back in action. The fire should be detected and extinguished within seconds, there is no residue or water damage to clean up, and the fire damage should be contained to a small space.
• Environmentally Friendly – Clean agent systems are safe for the environment and have zero o-zone depletion potential.

Fire control is the practice of reducing the heat output of a fire, reducing the area over which the fire exists, or suppressing or extinguishing the fire by depriving it of fuel, oxygen, or heat (see fire triangle).
The classification below relates to the United States of America. Different classifications exist in other countries.
 

Class-A fires

The most common method to control a class-A fire is to remove heat by spraying the burning solid fuels with water. Another method of controlling a class-A fire would be to reduce the oxygen content of the atmosphere in the immediate vicinity of the fire (i.e., "smother" the fire), such as by the introduction of an inert gas such as carbon dioxide.
In a wildfire, fire control includes various wildland fire suppression techniques such as defensible space, widening the fuel ladder, and removing fuel in the fire's path with firebreaks and backfires to minimize the brush fire reaching new combustible fuel and spreading further.
 

Class-B fires

Some Class B fires (hydrocarbons, petroleums, and fuels on fire) cannot be efficiently controlled with water. Fuels with a specific gravity less than water, such as gasoline or oil, float on water, resulting in the fire continuing in the fuel on top of the water. The application of a combination of fire suppressant foam mixed with water is a common and effective method of forming a blanket on top of the liquid fuel which eliminates the oxygen needed for combustion.The configuration of some fuels, such as coal and baled waste paper, result in a deep seated and burrowing fire, resulting in less effective fire control by the application of water on the outer surfaces of the fuel.
Some Class-B fires can be controlled with the application of chemical fire suppressants.

Class-C fires

Class-C fires involve electricity as a continuous power source for the ignition of the fuels associated with electrical equipment, such as plastic cable jackets. The application of water does not always result in effective fire control, and there is a general concern regarding conductivity and personnel safety. Class C fires can be effectively controlled by removing the oxygen. The removal of electricity as a continuous ignition source is important to eliminate re-ignition. Once the electricity is removed, the result is a Class A fire. Foam or dry chemical powder can be used to control fires involving shallow liquid spill

Ventilation

Fires can spread through the interior of a structure as the hot gases spread due to the expansion of the gases as a result of the combustion. Some fires can be partially controlled by venting these gases to the outside through manufactured heat vents in the structure's roof, or by the fire department cutting holes in the roof.

Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of potentially destructive fires.[1] It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local building code and fire code, which are enforced by the Authority Having Jurisdiction.
Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of the building code that is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Building inspectors check on compliance of a building under construction with the building code. Once construction is complete, a building must be maintained in accordance with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire department. In the event of fire emergencies, Firefighters, fire investigators, and other fire prevention personnel are called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the damage of a fire. Lessons learned from fires are applied to the authoring of both building codes and fire codes.

Located inside the building, the Fire Control Room is the nerve center for the building.
Located here are the controls for the building's fire protection systems, fire pump, secondary water supply, air-handling systems, stairwell door controls, communications and elevator controls.
Also located here is another key cabinet. The cabinet contains keys to all areas of the building to which firefighters will need access in the event of an emergency.

Automatic fire suppression systems control and extinguish fires without human intervention. Examples of automatic systems include fire sprinkler system, gaseous fire suppression, and condensed aerosol fire suppression. When fires are extinguished in the early stages loss of life is minimal since 93% of all fire-related deaths occur once the fire has progressed beyond the early stages.
Today there are numerous types of Automatic Fire Suppression Systems and standards for each one.
Systems are as diverse as the many applications.
In general, however, Automatic Fire Suppression Systems fall into two categories: engineered and pre-engineered systems.

• Engineered Fire Suppression Systems are design specific and most commonly used for larger installations where the system is designed for a particular application. Examples include large marine and land vehicle applications, server rooms, public and private buildings, industrial paint lines, dip tanks and electrical switch rooms. Engineered systems use a number of gaseous or solid agents with many of them being specifically formulated. Some are even stored as a liquid and discharged as a gas.
• Pre-Engineered Fire Suppression Systems use pre-designed elements to eliminate the need for engineering work beyond the original product design. Typical industrial solutions use a wet or dry chemical agent, such as potassium carbonate or monoammonium phosphate (MAP), to protect relatively smaller spaces such as distribution boards, battery rooms, engine bays, wind turbines, hazardous goods and other storage areas. A number of residential designs have also emerged that typically employ water mist and target retrofit applications.

Components

By definition, an automatic fire suppression system can operate without human intervention. To do so it must possess a means of detection, actuation and delivery. In many systems, detection is accomplished by mechanical or electrical means. Mechanical detection uses fusible-link or thermo-bulb detectors. These detectors are designed to separate at a specific temperature and release tension on a release mechanism. Electrical detection uses heat detectors equipped with self-restoring, normally-open contacts which close when a predetermined temperature is reached. Remote and local manual operation is also possible. Actuation usually involves either a pressurized fluid and a release valve, or in some cases an electric pump. Delivery is accomplished by means of piping and nozzles. Nozzle design is specific to the agent used and coverage desired.

Health and Environmental Concerns

Despite their effectiveness, chemical fire extinguishing agents are not without disadvantages. In the early 20th century, carbon tetrachloride was extensively used as a dry cleaning solvent, a refrigerant and as a fire extinguishing agent. In time, it was found carbon tetrachloride could lead to severe health effects.[7] From the mid-1960s Halon 1301 was the industry standard for protecting high-value assets from the threat of fire. Halon 1301 had many benefits as a fire suppression agent; it is fast-acting, safe for assets and required minimal storage space. Halon 1301's major drawbacks are that it depletes atmospheric ozone and is potentially harmful to humans. Since 1987, some 191 nations have signed The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. Among these were halogenated hydrocarbons often used in fire suppression. As a result, manufacturers have focused on alternatives to Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 (halogenated hydrocarbons). A number of countries have also taken steps to mandate the removal of installed Halon systems. Most notably these include Germany and Australia, the first two countries in the world to require this action. In both of these countries complete removal of installed Halon systems has been completed except for a very few essential-use applications. The European Union is currently undergoing a similar mandated removal of installed Halon systems.

These Sailors Operate Surface Ship Weapons

 
Navy fire controlmen (FC) operate certain weapons systems aboard Navy surface combatant ships. This is a highly technical, highly challenging rating (as the Navy refers to its jobs) in the advanced electronics and computer field.
Fire controlman is a highly competitive rating within the Navy, so standards for recruits are very high. If you're considering this rating, you'll need to be mature and willing to take on a lot of responsibility, in addition to having technical skill and expertise.
Unlike other ratings, in addition to operating weapons systems, fire controlmen troubleshoot and repair the weapons as well. These weapons systems include the Tomahawk missile system, the Sea Sparrow missile system and the Harpoon missile system as well as the associated computer and sensor packages. 

Training for Navy Fire Controlmen

Recruits can't enlist with the guarantee of an FC rating. They're required to enlist under the Navy's advanced electronics/computer field (AECF), and will spend about nine weeks in basic electronics training. That's in addition to fire controlman "A" school for about 20 weeks, both of which are conducted at the Navy base in Great Lakes, Illinois.
During the initial phase of AECF training, recruits are assigned to either the fire controlman rating or the electronic technician (ET) rating. These two ratings comprise the basis of a ship's combat systems department, which are responsible for maintaining its readiness for combat operations.

Duties of Fire Controlmen

The expanded duties of the fire controlman include operating and maintaining combat and weapons direction systems, surface-to-air and surface-to-surface missile systems and gun fire control systems. They also provide system employment recommendations, performing maintenance on digital computer equipment systems, 
The fire controlman has other duties related to the upkeep and maintenance of a ship's weapons systems, which include inspecting and testing micro- and minicomputers and related electronics.

Working Environment for Fire Controlmen

The working environment for fire controlmen can include the entire Navy fleet of surface ships, including aircraft carriers and Aegis cruisers, as well as repair activities ashore.

Job Requirements for Fire Controlmen 

Recruits must score a combined 156 in the mathematics knowledge (MK), electronics information (EI) and general science (GS) portions of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test, and a 222 on the arithmetic reasoning (AR) portion. 
In addition, aspiring fire controlmen need to be able to qualify for secret security clearance, have normal color perception, normal hearing, and be a U.S. citizen. This rating has a 72-month enlistment obligation. 
Advancement opportunities and career progression for fire controlmen, as with many Navy ratings, are directly linked to the rating's manning level. Personnel in undermanned ratings have greater promotion opportunity than those in overmanned ratings. 

Sea/Shore Rotation for Fire Controlmen

• First Sea Tour: 60 months
• First Shore Tour: 36 months
• Second Sea Tour: 60 months
• Second Shore Tour: 36 months
• Third Sea Tour: 48 months
• Third Shore Tour: 36 months
• Fourth Sea Tour: 48 months
• Forth Shore Tour: 36 months

Sea tours and shore tours for sailors that have completed four sea tours will be 36 months at sea followed by 36 months ashore until retirement.

 A trigger is a specific set of conditions that dictates initiation of fires. Often referred to as engagement criteria, a trigger specifies the circumstances in which subordinate elements are to engage. The circumstances can be based on a friendly or enemy event. For example, the trigger for a platoon to initiate engagement could be three or more enemy combat vehicles passing or crossing a given point or line. This line can be any natural or manmade linear feature, such as a road, ridgeline, or stream. It may also be a line perpendicular to the unit's orientation, delineated by one or more reference points.
e. Weapons Control Status. The three levels of weapons control status outline the conditions, based on target identification criteria, under which friendly elements may engage. The platoon leader sets and adjusts the weapons control status based on friendly and enemy disposition and the clarity of the situation. In general, the higher the probability of fratricide, the more restrictive the weapons control status. The three levels, in descending order of restriction, are--

• WEAPONS HOLD--Engage only if engaged or ordered to engage.
• WEAPONS TIGHT--Engage only targets that are positively identified as enemy.
• WEAPONS FREE--Engage any targets that are not positively identified as friendly.

As an example, the platoon leader may establish the weapons control status as WEAPONS HOLD when friendly forces are conducting a passage of lines. By maintaining an awareness of his own elements and adjacent friendly forces, however, he may be able to lower the weapons control status. In such a case, the platoon leader may be able to set a WEAPONS FREE status when he knows there are no friendly elements in the vicinity of the engagement. This permits his elements to engage targets at extended ranges even though it is difficult to distinguish targets accurately at ranges beyond 2,000 meters under battlefield conditions. The platoon leader also may establish a different weapons control status for his elements based on COP updates. Weapons control status is extremely important for forces using combat identification systems. Establishing the weapons control status as WEAPONS FREE permits leaders to engage an unknown target when they fail to get a friendly response.
f. Rules of Engagement. ROE specify the circumstances and limitations under which forces may engage. They include definitions of combatant and noncombatant elements and prescribe the treatment of noncombatants. Factors influencing ROE are national command policy, the mission and commander's intent, platoon leader's intent, the operational environment, and the law of war. ROE always recognize a soldier's right of self-defense; at the same time, they clearly define circumstances in which he may fire.
g. Engagement Techniques. Engagement techniques are effects-oriented fire distribution measures. The most common engagement techniques in platoon operations are--

• Point fire.
• Area fire.
• Volley (or simultaneous) fire.
• Alternating fire.
• Observed fire.
• Sequential fire.
• Time of suppression.
• Reconnaissance by fire.

(1) Point Fire. Point fire entails concentrating the effects of a unit's fire against a specific, identified target such as a vehicle, machine gun bunker, or ATGM position. When leaders direct point fire, all the unit's weapons engage the target, firing until they destroy it or until the required time of suppression expires. Employing converging fires from dispersed positions makes point fire more effective because the target is engaged from multiple directions. The unit may initiate an engagement using point fire against the most dangerous threat, then revert to area fire against other, less threatening point targets.
(2) Area Fire. Area fire involves distributing the effects of a unit's fire over an area in which enemy positions are numerous or are not obvious. If the area is large, leaders assign sectors of fire to subordinate elements using a terrain-based distribution method such as the quadrant technique. Typically, the primary purpose of area fire is suppression; however, sustaining effective suppression requires judicious control of the rate of fire.
(3) Volley Fire. Units employ volley fire to mass the effects of their fires rapidly or to gain fire superiority. For example, a unit may initiate a support-by-fire operation with volley fire then revert to alternating or sequential fire to maintain suppression. Volley fire also is employed to negate the low probability of hit and kill of certain antiarmor weapons. As an example, a rifle squad may employ volley fire with its AT4s to ensure rapid destruction of a BMP that is engaging a friendly position.
(4) Alternating Fire. In alternating fire, pairs of elements continuously engage the same point or area targets one at a time. For example, an infantry platoon may alternate the fires of a pair of machine guns or a vehicle section between vehicles. Alternating fire permits the unit to maintain suppression for a longer duration than does volley fire. It also forces the enemy to acquire and engage alternating points of fire.
(5) Observed Fire. Observed fire allows for mutual observation and assistance while protecting the location of the observing element and conserving ammunition. The company commander may employ observed fire between elements in the company. He may direct one platoon to observe while another platoon engages the enemy. The platoon may use observed fire when it is in protected defensive positions with engagement ranges of more than 800 meters. For example, the platoon leader may direct the mounted element to engage the enemy while the infantry squads and weapons squad observe the effects of the fires. The observing elements prepare to engage the enemy on order in case the mounted element fails to effectively engage the enemy, has malfunctions, or runs low on ammunition.
(6) Sequential Fire. In sequential fire, the subordinate elements of a unit engage the same point or area target one after another in an arranged sequence. Sequential fire also can help prevent the waste of ammunition, as when rifle squads wait to see the effects of the first Javelin before firing another. Additionally, sequential fire permits elements that have already fired to pass on information they have learned from the engagement. For example, an infantryman who missed a BMP with AT4 fires could pass range and lead information to the next soldier preparing to engage the BMP with an AT4.
(7) Time of Suppression. Time of suppression is the period, specified by the platoon leader, during which an enemy position or force must be suppressed. Suppression time is typically dependent on the time it will take a supported element to maneuver. Normally, a unit suppresses an enemy position using the sustained rate of fire of its automatic weapons. In planning for sustained suppression, leaders must consider several factors:

• The estimated time of suppression.
• The size of the area being suppressed.
• The type of enemy force to be suppressed.
• The range to the target.
• The rates of fire.
• The available ammunition quantities.

(8) Reconnaissance by Fire. Reconnaissance by fire is the process of engaging possible enemy locations to elicit a tactical response, such as return fire or movement. This response permits the platoon leader and subordinate leaders to make accurate target acquisition and then to mass fires against the enemy element. Typically, the platoon leader directs a subordinate element to conduct the reconnaissance by fire. He may, for example, direct an overwatching section to conduct the reconnaissance by fire against a probable enemy position before initiating movement by the bounding section.

The platoon leader must be proactive in reducing the risk of fratricide, especially when it concerns his dismounted infantry squads on the multi-dimensional battlefield. He has numerous tools to assist him in fratricide avoidance. (For a detailed discussion of fratricide avoidance refer to Appendix D).
a. The SBCT platoon can use infrared and thermal marking techniques to ensure that adjacent units do not mistakenly fire at friendly forces during limited visibility. The assault element can use the infrared codable Phoenix, infrared chemical lights, blacklight tube lights tied to poles, and many other methods to mark the assault element's progress. The platoon leader must ensure that the enemy does not have night vision capability before marking his soldiers' progress with infrared marking devices.
b. By monitoring the unit locations, leaders at all levels can ensure that they know the precise locations of their own and other elements and can control their fires accordingly. The platoon leader and the platoon sergeant must know the location of each of the squads.
F-7. PLAN FOR EXTREME LIMITED VISIBILITY CONDITIONS
The platoon is equipped with thermal sights and night vision systems that allow the squads and ICVs to engage the enemy during limited visibility at nearly the same ranges that are applicable during the day. Dense fog, heavy smoke, and blowing sand may significantly reduce the platoon leader's ability to control the direct fires of the platoon if he has not taken those conditions into consideration.
F-8. DEVELOP CONTINGENCIES FOR DIMINISHED CAPABILITIES
A platoon leader usually develops a plan based on having all of his assets available and makes alternate plans to account for the loss of equipment or soldiers. The platoon leader should develop a plan that maximizes his unit's capabilities while still addressing the most probable occurrence. He should then factor in redundancy within the platoon. He may, for example, designate alternate sectors of fire for the squads that provide him the means of shifting fires if one squad has been rendered ineffective. These contingencies may become items within a unit SOP.
Section II. DIRECT FIRE CONTROL
Acquiring and destroying the enemy is a precursor to direct fire engagement with a vehicle, antiarmor weapon, machine gun, or individual weapon. Leaders must not assume that the unit will be able to see the enemy; they must expect the enemy to use cover and concealed routes effectively when attacking and to make best use of flanking and concealed positions in the defense. Therefore, the platoon must practice innovative techniques of direct fire control and distribution in offensive and defensive operations, especially since the enemy may not have an established or well-known order of battle. This is often the case when conducting stability operations.
F-9. FIRE CONTROL PROCESS
To bring direct fires against an enemy force successfully, leaders must continuously apply the four steps of the fire control process. (For a detailed discussion of the fire control process refer to FM 3-90.1.) At the heart of this process are two critical actions: rapid, accurate target acquisition and the massing of fires to achieve decisive effects on the enemy. Target acquisition is the detection, identification, and location of a target in sufficient detail to permit the effective employment of all of the platoon's weapons. Massing focuses direct fires at critical points and then distributes the fires for optimum effect. The four steps of the fire control process are--

• Identify probable enemy locations and determine the enemy scheme of maneuver.
• Determine where and how to mass (focus and distribute) direct fires effects.
• Orient forces to speed target acquisition.
• Shift direct fires to refocus or redistribute their effects.

F-10 FIRE CONTROL MEASURES
Fire control measures are the means by which the platoon leader or subordinate leaders control fires. Application of these concepts, procedures, and techniques assists the unit in acquiring the enemy, focusing fires on him, distributing the effects of the fires, effectively shifting fires, and preventing fratricide. At the same time, no single measure is sufficient to effectively control fires. At the platoon level, fire control measures will be effective only if the entire unit has a common understanding of what the fire control measures mean and how to employ them. The following discussion focuses on the various fire control measures employed by the platoon. Table F-1 lists the control measures by whether they are terrain- or threat-based.
a. Target Reference Point. A TRP (Figure F-1) is a recognizable point on the ground that leaders use to orient friendly forces and to focus and control direct fires. In addition, when TRPs are designated as indirect fire targets, they can be used in calling for and adjusting indirect fires. Leaders designate TRPs at probable enemy locations and along likely avenues of approach. These points can be natural or manmade. A TRP can be an established site, such as a hill or a building, or an impromptu feature designated as a TRP on the spot, like a burning enemy vehicle or smoke generated by an artillery round. Friendly units also can construct markers to serve as TRPs. Ideally, TRPs should be visible in three observation modes (unaided, passive-IR, and thermal) so all forces can see them. TRPs include the following features and objects:

• Prominent hill mass.
• Distinctive building.
• Observable enemy position.
• Destroyed vehicle.
• Ground-burst illumination.
• Smoke round.
• Laser point.

b. Engagement Area. This fire control measure is an area along an enemy avenue of approach where the platoon leader intends to mass the fires of available weapons to destroy an enemy force. The size and shape of the engagement area are determined by the degree of relatively unobstructed visibility available to the unit's weapons systems in their firing positions and by the maximum range of those weapons. Typically, commanders delineate responsibility within the EA by assigning each platoon a sector of fire or direction of fire; these fire control measures are covered in the following paragraphs.
c. Sector of Fire. A sector of fire is a defined area that must be covered by direct fire. Leaders assign sectors of fire to subordinate elements, crew-served weapons, and individual soldiers to ensure coverage of an area of responsibility. They also may limit the sector of fire of an element or weapon to prevent accidental engagement of an adjacent unit. In assigning sectors of fire, platoon leaders and subordinate leaders consider the number and type of weapons available. In addition, they must consider acquisition system type and field of view in determining the width of a sector of fire. For example, while unaided vision has a wide field of view, its ability to detect and identify targets at extended ranges and in limited visibility conditions is restricted. Conversely, most fire control acquisition systems have greater detection and identification ranges than the unaided eye, but their field of view is narrow. Means of designating sectors of fire include the following:

• TRPs.
• Clock direction.
• Terrain-based quadrants.
• Friendly-based quadrants.

d. Direction of Fire. A direction of fire is an orientation or point used to assign responsibility for a particular area on the battlefield that must be covered by direct fire. Leaders designate directions of fire for the purpose of acquisition or engagement by subordinate elements, crew-served weapons, or individual soldiers. Leaders most commonly employ direction of fire when assigning sectors of fire because of limited time or insufficient reference points. Means of designating a direction of fire include the following:

• Closest TRP.
• Clock direction.
• Cardinal direction.
• Tracer on target.
• IR laser pointer.

e. Maximum Engagement Line. A MEL is the linear depiction of the farthest limit of effective fire for a weapon or unit. The weapon's maximum effective range, the target description, and the effects of terrain determine this line. For example, slope, vegetation, structures, and other features provide cover and concealment that may prevent the weapon from engaging out to the maximum effective range. A MEL serves several purposes for the platoon leader:

• To prevent squads or ICVs from engaging targets beyond the maximum effective ranges of their weapon systems.
• To establish criteria for triggers.
• To depict the maximum extent of the unit's battle space.

f. Restrictive Fire Line. An RFL is a linear fire control measure beyond which engagement is prohibited without coordination. In the offense, the platoon leader may designate an RFL to prevent a base of fire element from firing into the area where an assaulting element is maneuvering. This technique is particularly important when ICVs directly support the maneuver of infantry squads. In the defense, the platoon leader may establish an RFL to prevent the unit from engaging a friendly rifle squad positioned in restricted terrain on the flank of an avenue of approach.
g. Final Protective Line. The FPL is a line of fire established where an enemy assault is to be checked by the interlocking fires of all available weapons. The unit reinforces this line with protective obstacles and an FPF whenever possible. Initiation of the FPF is the signal for elements, crews, and individual soldiers to shift fires to their assigned portion of the FPL.
F-11. THREAT-BASED FIRE CONTROL MEASURES
The platoon leader uses threat-based fire control measures to focus and control fires by directing the unit to engage a specific, templated enemy element rather than to fire on a point or area. Threat-based fire control measures may be difficult to employ against an asymmetric threat. The following paragraphs describe the TTP associated with this type of control measure.
a. Fire Patterns. Fire patterns are a threat-based measure designed to distribute the fires of a unit simultaneously among multiple, similar targets. Platoons most often use them to distribute fires across an enemy formation. Leaders designate and adjust fire patterns based on terrain and the anticipated enemy formation. The basic fire patterns are frontal fire, cross fire, and depth fire (Figure F-2).
(1) Frontal Fire. Leaders may initiate frontal fire when targets are arrayed in front of the unit in a lateral configuration. Weapon systems engage targets to their respective fronts. For example, the left flank weapon engages the left-most target; the right flank weapon engages the right-most target. As they destroy enemy targets, weapons shift fires toward the center of the enemy formation and from near to far.
(2) Cross Fire. Leaders initiate cross fire when targets are arrayed laterally across the unit's front in a manner that permits diagonal fires at the enemy's flank or when obstructions prevent unit weapons from firing frontally. Right flank weapons engage the left-most targets; left flank weapons engage the right-most targets. Firing diagonally across an engagement area provides more flank shots, thus increasing the chance of kills. It also reduces the possibility that friendly elements will be detected if the enemy continues to move forward. As they destroy enemy targets, weapons shift fires toward the center of the enemy formation.
(3) Depth Fire. Leaders initiate depth fire when targets are dispersed in depth, perpendicular to the unit. Center weapons engage the closest targets; flank weapons engage deeper targets. As they destroy targets, weapons shift fires toward the center of the enemy formation.
b. Engagement Priorities. In concert with his concept of the operation, the company commander determines which target types provide the greatest payoff or present the greatest threat to his force. He then establishes these as a unit engagement priority. The platoon leader refines these priorities within his unit.
(1) Employ the Best Weapons for the Target. Establishing engagement priorities for specific friendly systems increases the effectiveness with which the unit employs its weapons. As an example, the engagement priority for the ICVs could be enemy personnel carriers (PCs) and then dismounted troops.
(2) Distribute the Unit's Fires. Establishing different priorities for similar friendly systems helps to prevent overkill and achieves effective distribution of fires. For example, if the commander establishes that Javelins will engage all armored vehicles, the platoon leader may designate the enemy's tanks as the initial priority for one Javelin pair while making the enemy's PCs the priority for the rifle squad's AT4s.
c. Weapons-Ready Posture. The weapons-ready posture is a means by which leaders use the situational up-dates via the COP or their estimate of the situation to specify the ammunition and range for the engagement. Range selection is dependent on the anticipated engagement range. Terrain, visibility, weather, and light conditions affect range selection.
(1) Within the platoon, weapons-ready posture affects the types and quantities of ammunition carried by rifle squads and vehicles.
(2) For infantry squads, weapons-ready posture is the selected ammunition and indexed range for individual and crew-served weapons. For example, an M203 grenadier whose most likely engagement is to cover dead space at 200 meters from his position might load HEDP and set 200 meters on his quadrant sight. To prepare for an engagement in a wooded area where engagement ranges are extremely short, an antiarmor specialist might dismount with an AT4 instead of a Javelin.

One of the most promising automatic extinguishing technologies is the recently available fine water droplet, or mist systems. This technology represents another tool that can provide automatic fire suppression in some cultural property applications. Potential uses include locations where reliable water supplies do not exist, where even sprinkler water discharges are too high, or where building construction and aesthetics impact the use of standard sprinkler pipe dimensions. Mist systems may also be an appropriate solution to the protection void left by the environmental concerns, and subsequent demise, of Halon 1301 gas.
Mist technology was originally developed for offshore uses such as on board ships and oil drilling platforms. For both of these applications, there is a need to control severe fires while limiting the amount of extinguishing water, which could impact vessel stability. These systems have been extensively approved by a number of domestic and international marine organizations, and have been a protection standard for the past 8–10 years. They have a solid track record dealing with maritime fires. These systems have also been used in several land based applications, and have a number of listings, primarily in Europe, where their effectiveness has been recognized. Some systems have recently received approvals for North American land based uses.
Mist systems discharge limited water quantities at higher pressures than sprinkler systems. These pressures range from approximately 100 to 1,000 psi, with the higher pressure systems generally producing larger volumes of fine sprays. The produced droplets are usually in the 50 to 200 micron diameter range (compared to 600–1,000 microns for standard sprinklers), resulting in exceptionally high efficiency cooling and fire control, with significantly little water. In most situations, fires are controlled with approximately 10-25% of the water normally associated with sprinklers. Water saturation that is often associated with standard firefighting procedures is decreased. Other benefits include lower aesthetic impact and known environmental safety.
Typical water mist systems consist of the following components:

• Water supply: Water for a system may be provided by either the piped building system or a dedicated tank arrangement. In some instances, lower pressure systems may use existing sprinkler piping. For most, however, supplemental pumps will be required. Other options include dedicated water/nitrogen storage cylinders, which can deliver a limited duration supply.
• Piping and nozzles: Piping can be greatly reduced when compared to sprinklers. For low pressure systems, pipes are generally 25-50% smaller than comparable sprinkler piping. For high pressure systems, piping is even smaller with the 0.50-0.75 inch diameters as the norm. Like sprinklers, nozzles are individually activated by the fire's heat, and are selected to cover a certain size hazard. Their sizes are comparable to a low profile sprinkler.
• Detection and control equipment: In some instances, mist discharge can be controlled by selected, high reliability intelligent detectors or by an advanced technology VESDA smoke detection system. These systems represent the premier, stateoftheart, fire detection technology that can provide very early warning of a developing fire, as well as reduce the probability of inadvertent discharge.

At this point, one of the main drawbacks to mist systems is their higher cost, which can be 50–100% greater than standard sprinklers. This cost, however, may be reduced due to possible installation labor savings. In rural applications, where reliable sprinkler water supplies can be expensive, mist systems may be comparable or less than standard sprinklers. Another problem is that these systems do not have the variety of approvals and listings commonly associated with sprinklers. As such, they may not be as recognized by fire and building authorities. In addition, the number of contractors who are familiar with the technology is limited. These concerns are diminishing, however, as use of these systems becomes more widespread.
Summary
In summary, automatic sprinklers often represent one of the most important fire protection options for most heritage applications. The successful application of sprinklers is dependent upon careful design and installation of high quality components by capable engineers and contractors. A properly selected, designed and installed system will offer unexcelled reliability. Sprinkler system components should be selected for compliance with the institution's objectives. Wet pipe systems offer the greatest degree of reliability and are the most appropriate system type for most heritage fire risks. With the exception of spaces subject to freezing conditions, dry pipe systems do not offer advantages over wet pipe systems in heritage buildings. Preaction sprinkler systems are beneficial in areas of highest water sensitivity. Their success is dependent upon selection of proper suppression and detection components and management's commitment to properly maintain systems. Water mist represents a very promising alternative to gaseous agent systems.
 

Several common misconceptions about sprinkler systems exist. Consequently, heritage building owners and operators are often reluctant to provide this protection, especially for collections storage and other water sensitive spaces. Typical misunderstandings include:

• When one sprinkler operates, all will activate. With the exception of deluge systems (discussed later in this leaflet), only those sprinklers in direct contact with the fire's heat will react. Statistically, approximately 61% of all sprinkler controlled fires are stopped by two or less sprinklers.
• Sprinklers operate when exposed to smoke. Sprinklers function by thermal impact against their sensing elements. The presence of smoke alone will not cause activation without high heat.
• Sprinkler systems are prone to leakage or inadvertent operation. Insurance statistics indicate a failure rate of approximately 1 head failure per 16,000,000 sprinklers installed per year. Sprinkler components and systems are among the most tested systems in an average building. Failure of a proper system is very remote. Where failures do occur, they are usually the result of improper design, installation, or maintenance. Therefore, to avoid problems, the institution should carefully select those who will be responsible for the installation and be committed to proper system maintenance.
• Sprinkler activation will cause excessive water damage to contents and structure. Water damage will occur when a sprinkler activates. This issue becomes relative, however, when compared to alternative suppression methods. The typical sprinklerwill discharge approximately 25 gallons per minute (GPM) while the typical fire department hose delivers 100–250 GPM. Sprinklers are significantly less damaging than hoses. Since sprinklers usually operate before the fire becomes large, the overall water quantity required for control is lower than situations where the fire continues to increase until firefighters arrive.

One final point to consider is that the water damage is usually capable of repair and restoration. Burned out contents, however, are often beyond mend.

• Sprinkler systems look bad and will harm the building's appearance. This concern has usually resulted from someone who has observed a less than ideal appearing system, and admittedly there are some poorly designed systems out there. Sprinkler systems can be designed and installed with almost no aesthetic impact.

To ensure proper design, the institution and design team should take an active role in the selection of visible components. Sprinkler piping should be placed, either concealed or in a decorative arrangement, to minimize visual impact. Only sprinklers with high quality finishes should be used. Often sprinkler manufacturers will use customer provided paints to match finish colors, while maintaining the sprinkler's listing. The selected sprinkler contractor must understand the role of aesthetics.
To help ensure overall success, the sprinkler system designer should understand the institution's protection objectives, operations, and fire risks. This individual should be knowledgeable about system requirements and flexible to implement unique, thought-out solutions for those areas where special aesthetic or operations concerns exist. The designer should be experienced in the design of systems in architecturally sensitive applications.
Ideally, the sprinkler contractor should be experienced working in heritage applications. However, an option is to select a contractor experienced in water sensitive applications such as telecommunications, pharmaceuticals, clean rooms, or high tech manufacturing. Companies including AT&T, Bristol Meyers Squibb, and IBM have very stringent sprinkler installation requirements. If a sprinkler contractor has demonstrated success with these type of organizations, then they will be capable of performing satisfactorily in a heritage site.
The selected sprinkler components should be provided by a reputable manufacturer, experienced in special, water sensitive hazards. The cost differential between average and the highest quality components is minimal. The long term benefit, however, is substantial. When considering the value of a facility and its contents, the extra investment is worth while.
With proper attention to selection, design, and maintenance, sprinkler systems will serve the institution without adverse impact. If the institution or design team does not possess the experience to ensure the system is proper, a fire protection engineer experienced in heritage applications can be a great advantage.

Dry pipe systems have some disadvantages that must be evaluated before selecting this equipment. These include:

• Increased complexity. Dry pipe systems require additional control equipment and air pressure supply components, which increases system complexity. Without proper maintenance this equipment may be less reliable than a comparable wet pipe system.
• Higher installation and maintenance costs. The added complexity impacts the overall drypipe installation cost. This complexity also increases maintenance expenditure, primarily due to added service labor costs.
• Lower design flexibility. There are strict requirements regarding the maximum permitted size (typically 750 gallons) of individual drypipe systems. These limitations may impact the ability of an owner to make system additions.
• Increased fire response time. Up to 60 seconds may pass from the time a sprinkler opens until water is discharged onto the fire. This will delay fire extinguishing actions, which may produce increased content damage.
• Increased corrosion potential. Following operation, drypipe sprinkler systems must be completely drained and dried. Otherwise, remaining water may cause pipe corrosion and premature failure. This is not a problem with wet pipe systems where water is constantly maintained in piping.

With the exception of unheated building spaces and freezer rooms, dry pipe systems do not offer any significant advantages over wet pipe systems and their use in heritage buildings is generally not recommended.
The third sprinkler system type, preaction, employs the basic concept of a dry pipe system in that water is not normally contained within the pipes. The difference, however, is that water is held from piping by an electrically operated valve, known as a preaction valve. The operation of this valve is controlled by independent flame, heat, or smoke detection. Two separate events must happen to initiate sprinkler discharge. First, the detection system must identify a developing fire and then open the preaction valve. This allows water to flow into system piping, which effectively creates a wet pipe sprinkler system. Second, individual sprinkler heads must release to permit water flow onto the fire.
In some instances, the preaction system may be set up with an interlock feature in which pressurized air or nitrogen is added to system piping. The purpose of this feature is twofold: first to monitor piping for leaks and second to hold water from system piping in the event of inadvertent detector operation. The most common application for this system type is in freezer warehouses.
The primary advantage of a preaction system is the dual action required for water release: the preaction valve must operate and sprinkler heads must fuse. This provides an added level of protection against inadvertent discharge, and for this reason, these systems are frequently employed in water sensitive environments such as archival vaults, fine art storage rooms, rare book libraries and computer centers.
There are some disadvantages to preaction systems. These include:

• Higher installation and maintenance costs. Preaction systems are more complex with several additional components, notably a fire detection system. This adds to the overall system cost.
• Modification difficulties. As with drypipe systems, preaction sprinkler systems have specific size limitations which may impact future system modifications. In addition, system modifications must incorporate changes to the fire detection and control system to ensure proper operation.
• Potential decreased reliability. The higher level of complexity associated with preaction systems creates an increased chance that something may not work when needed. Regular maintenance is essential to ensure reliability. Therefore, if the facility's management decides to install preaction sprinkler protection, they must remain committed to installing the highest quality equipment, and to maintaining these systems as required by manufacturer's recommendations.

Provided the application is appropriate, preaction systems have a place in heritage buildings, especially in water sensitive spaces.
A slight variation of preaction sprinklers is the deluge system, which is basically a preaction system using open sprinklers. Operation of the fire detection system releases a deluge valve, which in turn produces immediate water flow through all sprinklers in a given area. Typical deluge systems applications are found in specialized industrial situations, i.e., aircraft hangers and chemical plants, where high velocity suppression is necessary to prevent fire spread. Use of deluge systems in heritage facilities is rare and typically not recommended.
Another preaction system variation is the on/off system which utilizes the basic arrangement of a preaction system, with the addition of a thermal detector and nonlatching alarm panel. The system functions similar to any other preaction sprinkler system, except that as the fire is extinguished, a thermal device cools to allow the control panel to shut off water flow. If the fire should reignite, the system will turn back on. In certain applications on/off systems can be effective. Care, however, must be exercised when selecting this equipment to ensure that it functions as desired. In most urban areas, it is likely that the fire department will arrive before the system has shut itself down, thereby defeating any actual benefits.

There are three basic types of sprinkler systems: wet pipe, dry pipe and preaction, with each having applicability, depending on a variety of conditions such as potential fire severity, anticipated fire growth rates, content water sensitivity, ambient conditions, and desired response. In large multifunction facilities, such as a major museum or library, two or more system types may be employed.
Wet pipe systems are the most common sprinkler system. As the name implies, a wet pipe system is one in which water is constantly maintained within the sprinkler piping. When a sprinkler activates this water is immediately discharged onto the fire. Wet pipe system advantages include:

• System simplicity and reliability. Wet pipe sprinkler systems have the least number of components and therefore, the lowest number of items to malfunction. This produces unexcelled reliability, which is important since sprinklers may be asked to sit in waiting for many years before they are needed. This simplicity aspect also becomes important in facilities where system maintenance may not be performed with the desired frequency.
• Relative low installation and maintenance expense. Due to their overall simplicity, wet pipe sprinklers require the least amount of installation time and capital. Maintenance cost savings are also realized since less service time is generally required, compared to other system types. These savings become important when maintenance budgets are shrinking.
• Ease of modification. Heritage institutions are often dynamic with respect to exhibition and operation spaces. Wet pipe systems are advantageous since modifications involve shutting down the water supply, draining pipes, and making alterations. Following the work, the system is pressure tested and restored. Additional work for detection and special control equipment is avoided, which again saves time and expense.
• Short term down time following a fire. Wet pipe sprinkler systems require the least amount of effort to restore. In most instances, sprinkler protection is reinstated by replacing the fused sprinklers and turning the water supply back on. Preaction and drypipe systems may require additional effort to reset control equipment.

The main disadvantage of these systems is that they are not suited for subfreezing environments. There also may be concern where piping is subject to severe impact damage, such as some warehouses.
The advantages of wet systems make them highly desirable for use in most heritage applications, and with limited exception, they represent the system of choice for museum, library and historic building protection.
The next system type, a dry pipe sprinkler system, is one in which pipes are filled with pressurized air or nitrogen, rather than water. This air holds a remote valve, known as a dry pipe valve, in a closed position. The drypipe valve is located in a heated area and prevents water from entering the pipe until a fire causes one or more sprinklers to operate. Once this happens, the air escapes and the dry pipe valve releases. Water then enters the pipe, flowing through open sprinklers onto the fire.
The main advantage of dry pipe sprinkler systems is their ability to provide automatic protection in spaces where freezing is possible. Typical dry pipe installations include unheated warehouses and attics, outside exposed loading docks and within commercial freezers.
Many heritage managers view dry pipe sprinklers as advantageous for protection of collections and other water sensitive areas, with a perceived benefit that a physically damaged wet pipe system will leak while dry pipe systems will not. In these situations, however, dry pipe systems will generally not offer any advantage over wet pipe systems. Should impact damage happen, there will only be a mild discharge delay, i.e. 1 minute, while air in the piping is released before water flow.

• Control valves. A sprinkler system must be capable of shut down after the fire has been controlled, and for periodic maintenance and modification. In the simplest system a single shutoff valve may be located at the point where the water supply enters the building. In larger buildings the sprinkler system may consist of multiple zones with a control valve for each. Control valves should be located in readily identified locations to assist responded emergency personnel.
• Alarms. Alarms alert building occupants and emergency forces when a sprinkler water flow occurs. The simplest alarms are water driven gongs supplied by the sprinkler system. Electrical flow and pressure switches, connected to a building fire alarm system, are more common in large buildings. Alarms are also provided to alert building management when a sprinkler valve is closed.
• Drain and test connections. Most sprinkler systems have provisions to drain pipes during system maintenance. Drains should be properly installed to remove all water from the sprinkler system, and prevent water from leakage onto protected spaces, when piping service is necessary. It is advisable to install drains at a remote location from the supply, thereby permitting effective system flushing to remove debris. Test connections are usually provided to simulate the flow of a sprinkler, thereby verifying the working condition of alarms. Test connections should be operated every 6 months.
• Specialty valves. Drypipe and preaction sprinkler systems require complex, special control valves that are designed to hold water from the system piping until needed. These control valves also include air pressure maintenance equipment and emergency operation/release systems.
• Fire Hose Connections. Fire fighters will often supplement sprinkler systems with hoses. Firefighting tasks are enhanced by installing hose connections to sprinkler system piping. The additional water demand imposed by these hoses must be factored into the overall sprinkler design in order to prevent adverse system performance.

• The source must be available at all times. Fires can happen at any time and therefore, the water supply must be in a constant state of readiness. Supplies must be evaluated for resistance to pipe failure, pressure loss, droughts, and other issues that may impact availability.
• The system must provide adequate sprinkler supply and pressure. A sprinkler system will create a hydraulic demand, in terms of flow and pressure, on the water supply. The supply must be capable of meeting this demand. Otherwise, supplemental components such as a fire pump or standby tank must be added to the system.
• The supply must provide water for the anticipated fire duration. Depending of the fire hazard, suppression may take several minutes to over an hour. The selected source must be capable of providing sprinklers with water until suppression has been achieved.
• The system must provide water for fire department hoses operating in tandem with the sprinkler system. Most fire department procedures involve the use of fire attack hoses to supplement sprinklers. The water supply must be capable of handling this additional demand without adverse impact on sprinkler performance.

Sprinkler water is transported to fire via a system of fixed pipes and fittings. Piping material options include various steel alloys, copper, and fire resistant plastics. Steel is the traditional material with copper and plastics utilized in many sensitive applications. Primary considerations for selection of pipe materials include:

• Ease of installation. The easier the material is installed, the less disruption is imposed on the institution's operations and mission. The ability to install a system with the least amount of disturbance is an important consideration, especially in sprinkler retrofit applications where building use will continue during construction.
• Cost of material versus cost of protected area. Piping typically represents the greatest single cost item in a sprinkler system. Often there is a temptation to reduce costs by utilizing less expensive piping materials that may be perfectly acceptable in certain instances, i.e. office or commercial environs. However, in heritage applications where the value of contents may be far beyond sprinkler costs, appropriateness of the piping rather than cost should be the deciding factor.
• Contractor familiarity with materials. A mistake to be avoided is one in which the contractor and pipe materials have been selected, only to find out that the contractor is inexperienced with the pipe. This can lead to installation difficulties, added expense, and increased failure potential. A contractor must demonstrate familiarity with the desired material before selection.
• Prefabrication requirements or other installation constraints. In some instances, such as in fine art vaults, requirements may be imposed to limit the amount of work time in the space. This will often require extensive prefabrication work outside of the work area. Some materials are easily adapted to prefabrication.
• Material cleanliness. Some pipe materials are cleaner to install than others. This will reduce the potential for soiling collections, displays, or building finishes during installation. Various materials are also resistant to accumulation in the system water, which could discharge onto collections. Cleanliness of installation and discharge should be a consideration.
• Labor requirements. Some pipe materials are heavier or more cumbersome to work with than others. Consequently additional workers are needed to install pipes, which can add to installation costs. If the number of construction workers allowed into the building is a factor, lighter materials may be beneficial.

The benefits and disadvantages of each material should be evaluated prior to selection of pipe materials.

Introduction 
For most fires, water represents the ideal extinguishing agent. Fire sprinklers utilize water by direct application onto flames and heat, which causes cooling of the combustion process and prevents ignition of adjacent combustibles. They are most effective during the fire's initial flame growth stage, while the fire is relatively easy to control. A properly selected sprinkler will detect the fire's heat, initiate alarm, and begin suppression within moments after flames appear. In most instances sprinklers will control fire advancement within a few minutes of their activation, which will in turn result in significantly less damage than otherwise would happen without sprinklers.
Among the potential benefits of sprinklers are the following:

• Immediate identification and control of a developing fire. Sprinkler systems respond at all times, including periods of low occupancy. Control is generally instantaneous.
• Immediate alert. In conjunction with the building fire alarm system, automatic sprinkler systems will notify occupants and emergency response personnel of the developing fire.
• Reduced heat and smoke damage. Significantly less heat and smoke will be generated when the fire is extinguished at an early stage.
• Enhanced life safety. Staff, visitors and fire fighters will be subject to less danger when fire growth is checked.
• Design flexibility. Egress route and fire/smoke barrier placement becomes less restrictive since early fire control minimizes demand on these systems. Many fire and building codes will permit design and operations flexibility based on the presence of a fire sprinkler system.
• Enhanced security. A sprinkler controlled fire can reduce demand on security forces by minimizing intrusion and theft opportunities.
• Decreased insurance expenditure. Sprinkler controlled fires are less damaging than fires in nonsprinklered buildings. Insurance underwriters may offer reduced premiums in sprinkler protected properties.

These benefits should be considered when deciding on the selection of automatic fire sprinkler protection.
Sprinkler System Components and Operation 
Sprinkler systems are essentially a series of water pipes that are supplied by a reliable water supply. At selected intervals along these pipes are independent, heat activated valves known as sprinkler heads. It is the sprinkler that is responsible for water distribution onto the fire. Most sprinkler systems also include an alarm to alert occupants and emergency forces when sprinkler activation (fire) occurs.
During the incipient fire stage, the heat output is relatively low and is unable to cause sprinkler operation. However, as the fire intensity increases, the sprinkler's sensing elements become exposed to elevated temperatures (typically in excess of 57–107°C (135–225°F), and begin to deform. Assuming temperatures remain high, as they would during an increasing fire, the element will fatigue after an approximate 30 to 120 second period. This releases the sprinkler's seals allowing water to discharge onto the fire and begin the suppression action. In most situations less than 2 sprinklers are needed to control the fire. In fast growing fire scenarios, however, such as a flammable liquid spill, up to 12 sprinklers may be required.
In addition to normal fire control efforts, sprinkler operation may be interconnected to initiate building and fire department alarms, shutdown electrical and mechanical equipment, close fire doors and dampers, and suspend some processes.
As fire fighters arrive their efforts will focus on ensuring that the system has contained the fire, and, when satisfied, shut off the water flow to minimize water damage. It is at this point that staff will normally be permitted to enter the damaged space and perform salvage duties.
System Components and Types 
The basic components of a sprinkler system are the sprinklers, system piping, and a dependable water source. Most systems also require an alarm, system control valves, and means to test the equipment.
The sprinkler itself is the spray nozzle, which distributes water over a defined fire hazard area (typically 14–21 m2/150–225 ft2) with each sprinkler operating by actuation of its own temperature linkage. The typical sprinkler consists of a frame, thermal operated linkage, cap, orifice, and deflector. Styles of each component may vary but the basic principles of each remain the same.

• Frame. The frame provides the main structural component which holds the sprinkler together. Water supply piping is connected to the sprinkler at the base of the frame. The frame holds the thermal linkage and cap in place, and supports the deflector during discharge. Frame styles include standard and low profile, flush, and concealed mount. Some are designed for extended spray coverage, beyond the range of normal sprinklers. Standard finishes include brass, chrome, black, and white, while custom finishes are available for aesthetically sensitive spaces. Special coatings are available for areas subject to high corrosive effect. Selection of a specific frame style is dependent on the size and type of area to be covered, anticipated hazard, visual impact features, and atmospheric conditions.
• Thermal linkage. The thermal linkage is the component that controls water release. Under normal conditions the linkage holds the cap in place and prevents water flow. As the link is exposed to heat, however, it weakens and releases the cap. Common linkage styles include soldered metal levers, frangible glass bulbs, and solder pellets. Each link style is equally dependable.

Upon reaching the desired operating temperature, an approximate 30 second to 4 minute time lag will follow. This lag is the time required for linkage fatigue and is largely controlled by the link materials and mass. Standard responding sprinklers operate closer to the 3–4 minute mark while quick response (QR) sprinklers operate in significantly shorter periods. Selection of a sprinkler response characteristic is dependent upon the existing risk, acceptable loss level, and desired response action.
In heritage applications the advantage of quick response sprinklers often becomes apparent. The faster a sprinkler reacts to a fire, the sooner the suppression activity is initiated, and the lower the potential damage level. This is particularly beneficial in high value or life safety applications where the earliest possible extinguishment is a fire protection goal. It is important to understand that response time is independent of response temperature. A quicker responding sprinkler will not activate at a lower temperature than a comparable standard head.

• Cap. The cap provides the water tight seal which is located over the sprinkler orifice. It is held in place by the thermal linkage, and falls from position after linkage heating to permit water flow. Caps are constructed solely of metal or a metal with a teflon disk.
• Orifice. The machined opening at the base of the sprinkler frame is the orifice from which extinguishing water flows. Most orifice openings are 15 mm (1/2 inch) diameter with smaller bores available for residential applications and larger openings for higher hazards.
• Deflector. The deflector is mounted on the frame opposite the orifice. Its purpose is to break up the water stream discharging from the orifice into a more efficient extinguishing pattern. Deflector styles determine how the sprinkler is mounted, with common sprinkler mounting styles known as upright (mounted above the pipe), pendent (mounted below the pipe, i.e. under ceilings), and sidewall sprinklers which discharge water in a lateral position from a wall. The sprinkler must be mounted as designed to ensure proper action. Selection of a particular style is often dependent upon physical building constraints.

A sprinkler that has received wide spread interest for museum applications is the on/off sprinkler. The principle behind these products is that as a fire occurs, water discharge and extinguishing action will happen similar to standard sprinklers. As the room temperature is cooled to a safer level, a bimetallic snap disk on the sprinkler closes and water flow ceases. Should the fire reignite, operation will once again occur. The advantage of on/off sprinklers is their ability to shut off, which theoretically can reduce the quantity of water distributed and resultant damage levels. The problem, however, is the long time period that may pass before room temperatures are sufficiently cooled to the sprinkler's shut off point. In most heritage applications, the building's construction will retain heat and prevent the desired sprinkler shut down. Frequently, fire emergency response forces will have arrived and will be able to close sprinkler zone control valves before the automatic shut down feature has functioned.
On-off sprinklers typically cost 8–10 times more than the average sprinkler, which is only justifiable when assurance can be made that these products will perform as intended. Therefore, on/off sprinkler use in heritage facilities should remain limited.
Selection of specific sprinklers is based on: risk characteristics, ambient room temperature, desired response time, hazard criticality and aesthetic factors. Several sprinkler types may be used in a heritage facility.
All sprinkler systems require a reliable water source. In urban areas, a piped public service is the most common supply, while rural areas generally utilize private tanks, reservoirs, lakes, or rivers. Where a high degree of reliability is desired, or a single source is undependable, multiple supplies may be utilized.

Introduction 
A key aspect of fire protection is to identify a developing fire emergency in a timely manner, and to alert the building's occupants and fire emergency organizations. This is the role of fire detection and alarm systems. Depending on the anticipated fire scenario, building and use type, number and type of occupants, and criticality of contents and mission, these systems can provide several main functions. First they provide a means to identify a developing fire through either manual or automatic methods and second, they alert building occupants to a fire condition and the need to evacuate. Another common function is the transmission of an alarm notification signal to the fire department or other emergency response organization. They may also shut down electrical, air handling equipment or special process operations, and they may be used to initiate automatic suppression systems. This section will describe the basic aspects of fire detection and alarm systems.
Control Panels 
The control panel is the "brain" of the fire detection and alarm system. It is responsible for monitoring the various alarm "input" devices such as manual and automatic detection components, and then activating alarm "output" devices such as horns, bells, warning lights, emergency telephone dialers, and building controls. Control panels may range from simple units with a single input and output zone, to complex computer driven systems that monitor several buildings over an entire campus. There are two main control panel arrangements, conventional and addressable, which will be discussed below.
Conventional or "point wired" fire detection and alarm systems were for many years the standard method for providing emergency signaling. In a conventional system one or more circuits are routed through the protected space or building. Along each circuit, one or more detection devices are placed. Selection and placement of these detectors is dependent upon a variety of factors including the need for automatic or manual initiation, ambient temperature and environmental conditions, the anticipated type of fire, and the desired speed of response. One or more device types are commonly located along a circuit to address a variety of needs and concerns.
Upon fire occurrence, one or more detectors will operate. This action closes the circuit, which the fire control panel recognizes as an emergency condition. The panel will then activate one or more signaling circuits to sound building alarms and summon emergency help. The panel may also send the signal to another alarm panel so that it can be monitored from a remote point.
In order to help insure that the system is functioning properly, these systems monitor the condition of each circuit by sending a small current through the wires. Should a fault occur, such as due to a wiring break, this current cannot proceed and is registered as a "trouble" condition. The indication is a need for service somewhere along the respective circuit.
In a conventional alarm system, all alarm initiating and signaling is accomplished by the system's hardware which includes multiple sets of wire, various closing and opening relays, and assorted diodes. Because of this arrangement, these systems are actually monitoring and controlling circuits, and not individual devices.
To further explain this, assume that a building's fire alarm system has 5 circuits, zones A through E, and that each circuit has 10 smoke detectors and 2 manual stations located in various rooms of each zone. A fire ignition in one of the rooms monitored by zone "A" causes a smoke detector to go into alarm. This will be reported by the fire alarm control panel as a fire in circuit or zone "A". It will not indicate the specific detector type nor location within this zone. Emergency responding personnel may need to search the entire zone to determine where the device is reporting a fire. Where zones have several rooms, or concealed spaces, this response can be time consuming and wasteful of valuable response opportunity.
The advantage of conventional systems is that they are relatively simple for small to intermediate size buildings. Servicing does not require a large amount of specialized training.
A disadvantage is that for large buildings, they can be expensive to install because of the extensive amounts of wire that are necessary to accurately monitor initiating devices.
Conventional systems may also be inherently labor intensive and expensive to maintain. Each detection device may require some form of operational test to verify it is in working condition. Smoke detectors must be periodically removed, cleaned, and recalibrated to prevent improper operation. With a conventional system, there is no accurate way of determining which detectors are in need of servicing. Consequently, each detector must be removed and serviced, which can be a time consuming, labor intensive, and costly endeavor. If a fault occurs, the "trouble" indication only states that the circuit has failed, but does not specifically state where the problem is occurring. Subsequently, technicians must survey the entire circuit to identify the problem.
Addressable or "intelligent" systems represent the current state-of-the-art in fire detection and alarm technology. Unlike conventional alarm methods, these systems monitor and control the capabilities of each alarm initiating and signaling device through microprocessors and system software. In effect, each intelligent fire alarm system is a small computer overseeing and operating a series of input and output devices.
Like a conventional system, the address system consists of one or more circuits that radiate throughout the space or building. Also, like standard systems, one or more alarm initiating devices may be located along these circuits. The major difference between system types involves the way in which each device is monitored. In an addressable system, each initiating device (automatic detector, manual station, sprinkler waterflow switch, etc.) is given a specific identification or "address". This address is correspondingly programmed into the control panel's memory with information such as the type of device, its location, and specific response details such as which alarm devices are to be activated.
The control panel's microprocessor sends a constant interrogation signal over each circuit, in which each initiating device is contacted to inquire its status (normal or emergency). This active monitoring process occurs in rapid succession, providing system updates every 5 to 10 seconds.
The addressable system also monitors the condition of each circuit, identifying any faults which may occur. One of the advancements offered by these systems is their ability to specifically identify where a fault has developed. Therefore, instead of merely showing a fault along a wire, they will indicate the location of the problem. This permits faster diagnosis of the trouble, and allows a quicker repair and return to normal.
Advantages provided by addressable alarm systems include stability, enhanced maintenance, and ease of modification. Stability is achieved by the system software. If a detector recognizes a condition which could be indicative of a fire, the control panel will first attempt a quick reset. For most spurious situations such as insects, dust, or breezes, the incident will often remedy itself during this reset procedure, thereby reducing the probability of false alarm. If a genuine smoke or fire condition exists, the detector will reenter the alarm mode immediately after the reset attempt. The control panel will now regard this as a fire condition, and will enter its alarm mode.
With respect to maintenance, these systems offer several key advantages over conventional ones. First of all, they are able to monitor the status of each detector. As a detector becomes dirty, the microprocessor recognizes a decreased capability, and provides a maintenance alert. This feature, known as Listed Integral Sensitivity Testing, allows facilities personnel to service only those detectors that need attention, rather than requiring a labor and time consuming cleaning of all units.
Advanced systems, such as the FCI 7200 incorporate another maintenance feature known as drift compensation. This software procedure adjusts the detector's sensitivity to compensate for minor dust conditions. This avoids the ultra sensitive or "hot" detector condition which often results as debris obscures the detector's optics. When the detector has been compensated to its limit, the control panel alerts maintenance personnel so that servicing can be performed.
Modifying these systems, such as to add or delete a detector, involves connecting or removing the respective device from the addressable circuit, and changing the appropriate memory section. This memory change is accomplished either at the panel or on a personal computer, with the information downloaded into the panel's microprocessor.
The main disadvantage of addressable systems is that each system has its own unique operating characteristics. Therefore, service technicians must be trained for the respective system. The training program is usually a 3-4 day course at the respective manufacturer's facility. Periodic update training may be necessary as new service methods are developed.
Fire Detectors 
When present, humans can be excellent fire detectors. The healthy person is able to sense multiple aspects of a fire including the heat, flames, smoke, and odors. For this reason, most fire alarm systems are designed with one or more manual alarm activation devices to be used by the person who discovers a fire. Unfortunately, a person can also be an unreliable detection method since they may not be present when a fire starts, may not raise an alarm in an effective manner, or may not be in perfect heath to recognize fire signatures. It is for this reason that a variety of automatic fire detectors have been developed. Automatic detectors are meant to imitate one or more of the human senses of touch, smell or sight. Thermal detectors are similar to our ability to identify high temperatures, smoke detectors replicate the sense of smell, and flame detectors are electronic eyes. The properly selected and installed automatic detector can be a highly reliable fire sensor.
Manual fire detection is the oldest method of detection. In the simplest form, a person yelling can provide fire warning. In buildings, however, a person's voice may not always transmit throughout the structure. For this reason, manual alarm stations are installed. The general design philosophy is to place stations within reach along paths of escape. It is for this reason that they can usually be found near exit doors in corridors and large rooms.
The advantage of manual alarm stations is that, upon discovering the fire, they provide occupants with a readily identifiable means to activate the building fire alarm system. The alarm system can then serve in lieu of the shouting person's voice. They are simple devices, and can be highly reliable when the building is occupied. The key disadvantage of manual stations is that they will not work when the building is unoccupied. They may also be used for malicious alarm activations. Nonetheless, they are an important component in any fire alarm system.
Thermal detectors are the oldest type of automatic detection device, having origin in the mid 1800's, with several styles still in production today. The most common units are fixed temperature devices that operate when the room reaches a predetermined temperature (usually in the 135°–165°F/57°–74°C). The second most common type of thermal sensor is the rate-of-rise detector, which identifies an abnormally fast temperature climb over a short time period. Both of these units are "spot type" detectors, which means that they are periodically spaced along a ceiling or high on a wall. The third detector type is the fixed temperature line type detector, which consists of two cables and an insulated sheathing that is designed to breakdown when exposed to heat. The advantage of line type over spot detection is that thermal sensing density can be increased at lower cost.
Thermal detectors are highly reliable and have good resistance to operation from nonhostile sources. They are also very easy and inexpensive to maintain. On the down side, they do not function until room temperatures have reached a substantial temperature, at which point the fire is well underway and damage is growing exponentially. Subsequently, thermal detectors are usually not permitted in life safety applications. They are also not recommended in locations where there is a desire to identify a fire before substantial flames occur, such as spaces where high value thermal sensitive contents are housed.
Smoke detectors are a much newer technology, having gained wide usage during the 1970's and 1980's in residential and life safety applications. As the name implies, these devices are designed to identify a fire while in its smoldering or early flame stages, replicating the human sense of smell. The most common smoke detectors are spot type units, that are placed along ceilings or high on walls in a manner similar to spot thermal units. They operate on either an ionization or photoelectric principle, with each type having advantages in different applications. For large open spaces such as galleries and atria, a frequently used smoke detector is a projected beam unit. This detector consists of two components, a light transmitter and a receiver, that are mounted at some distance (up to 300 ft/100m) apart. As smoke migrates between the two components, the transmitted light beam becomes obstructed and the receiver is no longer able to see the full beam intensity. This is interpreted as a smoke condition, and the alarm activation signal is transmitted to the fire alarm panel.
A third type of smoke detector, which has become widely used in extremely sensitive applications, is the air aspirating system. This device consists of two main components: a cotrol unit that houses the detection chamber, an aspiration fan and operation circuitry; and a network of sampling tubes or pipes. Along the pipes are a series of ports that are designed to permit air to enter the tubes and be transported to the detector. Under normal conditions, the detector constantly draws an air sample into the detection chamber, via the pipe network. The sample is analyzed for the existence of smoke, and then returned to atmosphere. If smoke becomes present in the sample, it is detected and an alarm signal is transmitted to the main fire alarm control panel. Air aspirating detectors are extremely sensitive and are typically the fastest responding automatic detection method. Many high technology organizations, such as telephone companies, have standardized on aspiration systems. In cultural properties they are used for areas such as collections storage vaults and highly valuable rooms. These are also frequently used in aesthetically sensitive applications since components are often easier to conceal, when compared to other detection methods.
The key advantage of smoke detectors is their ability to identify a fire while it is still in its incipient. As such, they provide added opportunity for emergency personnel to respond and control the developing fire before severe damage occurs. They are usually the preferred detection method in life safety and high content value applications. The disadvantage of smoke detectors is that they are usually more expensive to install, when compared to thermal sensors, and are more resistant to inadvertent alarms. However, when properly selected and designed, they can be highly reliable with a very low probability of false alarm.
Flame detectors represent the third major type of automatic detection method, and imitate the human sense of sight. They are line of sight devices that operate on either an infrared, ultraviolet or combination principle. As radiant energy in the approximate 4,000 to 7,700 angstroms range occurs, as indicative of a flaming condition, their sensing equipment recognizes the fire signature and sends a signal to the fire alarm panel.
The advantage of flame detection is that it is extremely reliable in a hostile environment. They are usually used in high value energy and transportation applications where other detectors would be subject to spurious activation. Common uses include locomotive and aircraft maintenance facilities, refineries and fuel loading platforms, and mines. A disadvantage is that they can be very expensive and labor intensive to maintain. Flame detectors must be looking directly at the fire source, unlike thermal and smoke detectors which can identify migrating fire signatures. Their use in cultural properties is extremely limited.
Alarm Output Devices 
Upon receiving an alarm notification, the fire alarm control panel must now tell someone that an emergency is underway. This is the primary function of the alarm output aspect of a system. Occupant signaling components include various audible and visual alerting components, and are the primary alarm output devices. Bells are the most common and familiar alarm sounding device, and are appropriate for most building applications. Horns are another option, and are especially well suited to areas where a loud signal is needed such as library stacks, and architecturally sensitive buildings where devices need partial concealment. Chimes may be used where a soft alarm tone is preferred, such as health care facilities and theaters. Speakers are the fourth alarm sounding option, which sound a reproducible signal such as a recorded voice message. They are often ideally suited for large, multistory or other similar buildings where phased evacuation is preferred. Speakers also offer the added flexibility of emergency public address announcements. With respect to visual alert, there are a number of strobe and flashing light devices. Visual alerting is required in spaces where ambient noise levels are high enough to preclude hearing sounding equipment, and where hearing impaired occupants may be found. Standards such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) mandate visual devices in numerous museum, library, and historic building applications.
Another key function of the output function is emergency response notification. The most common arrangement is an automatic telephone or radio signal that is communicated to a constantly staffed monitoring center. Upon receiving the alert, the center will then contact the appropriate fire department, providing information about the location of alarm. In some instances, the monitoring station may be the police or fire departments, or a 911 center. In other instances it will be a private monitoring company that is under contract to the organization. In many cultural properties, the building's inhouse security service may serve as the monitoring center.
Other output functions include shutting down electrical equipment such as computers, shutting off air handling fans to prevent smoke migration, and shutting down operations such as chemical movement through piping in the alarmed area. They may also activate fans to extract smoke, which is a common function in large atria spaces. These systems can also activate discharge of gaseous fire extinguishing systems, or preaction sprinkler systems.
Summary 
In summary, there are several options for a building's fire detection and alarm system. The ultimate system type, and selected components, will be dependent upon the building construction and value, its use or uses, the type of occupants, mandated standards, content value, and mission sensitivity. Contacting a fire engineer or other appropriate professional who understands fire problems and the different alarm and detection options is usually a preferred first step to find the best system.
 

Before attempting to understand fire detection systems and automatic sprinklers, it is beneficial to possess a basic knowledge of fire development and behavior. With this information, the role and interaction of these supplemental fire safety systems in the protection process can then be better realized.
Basically, a fire is a chemical reaction in which a carbon based material (fuel), mixes with oxygen (usually as a component of air), and is heated to a point where flammable vapors are produced. These vapors can then come in contact with something that is hot enough to cause vapor ignition, and a resulting fire. In simple terms, something that can burn touches something that is hot, and a fire is produced.
Libraries, archives, museums, and historic structures frequently contain numerous fuels. These include books, manuscripts, records, artifacts, combustible interior finishes, cabinets, furnishings, and laboratory chemicals. It should be recognized that any item containing wood, plastic, paper, fabric, or combustible liquids is a potential fuel. They also contain several common, potential ignition sources including any item, action, or process which produces heat. These encompass electric lighting and power systems, heating and air conditioning equipment, heat producing conservation and maintenance activities, and electric office appliance. Flame generating construction activities such as soldering, brazing, and cutting are frequent sources of ignition. Arson is unfortunately one of the most common cultural property ignition sources, and must always be considered in fire safety planning.
When the ignition source contacts the fuel, a fire can start. Following this contact, the typical accidental fire begins as a slow growth, smoldering process which may last from a few minutes to several hours. The duration of this "incipient" period is dependent on a variety of factors including fuel type, its physical arrangement, and quantity of available oxygen. During this period heat generation increases, producing light to moderate volumes of smoke. The characteristic smell of smoke is usually the first indication that an incipient fire is underway. It is during this stage that early detection (either human or automatic), followed by a timely response by qualified fire emergency professionals, can control the fire before significant losses occur.
As the fire reaches the end of the incipient period, there is usually enough heat generation to permit the onset of open, visible flames. Once flames have appeared, the fire changes from a relatively minor situation to a serious event with rapid flame and heat growth. Ceiling temperatures can exceed 1,000° C (1,800° F) within the first minutes. These flames can ignite adjacent combustible contents within the room, and immediately endanger the lives of the room's occupants. Within 3–5 minutes, the room ceiling acts like a broiler, raising temperatures high enough to "flash", which simultaneously ignites all combustibles in the room. At this point, most contents will be destroyed and human survivability becomes impossible. Smoke generation in excess of several thousand cubic meters (feet) per minute will occur, obscuring visibility and impacting contents remote from the fire.
If the building is structurally sound, heat and flames will likely consume all remaining combustibles and then self extinguish (burn out). However, if wall and/or ceiling fire resistance is inadequate, (i.e. open doors, wall/ceiling breaches, combustible building construction), the fire can spread into adjacent spaces, and start the process over. If the fire remains uncontrolled, complete destruction or "burn out" of the entire building and contents may ultimately result.
Successful fire suppression is dependent on extinguishing flames before, or immediately upon, flaming combustion. Otherwise, the resulting damage may be too severe to recover from. During the incipient period, a trained person with portable fire extinguishers may be an effective first line of defense. However, should an immediate response fail or the fire grow rapidly, extinguisher capabilities can be surpassed within the first minute. More powerful suppression methods, either fire department hoses or automatic systems, then become essential.
A fire can have far reaching impact on the institution's buildings, contents and mission. General consequences may include:

• Collections damage. Most heritage institutions house unique and irreplaceable objects. Fire generated heat and smoke can severely damage or totally destroy these items beyond repair.
• Operations and mission damage. Heritage occupancies often contain educational facilities, conservation laboratories, catalogue services, administrative/support staff offices, exhibition production, retail, food service, and a host of other activities. A fire can shut these down with adverse impact on the organization's mission and its clientele.
• Structure damage. Buildings provide the "shell" that safeguards collections, operations and occupants from weather, pollution, vandalism and numerous other environmental elements. A fire can destroy walls, floors, ceiling/roof assemblies and structural support, as well as systems that illuminate, control temperature and humidity, and supply electrical power. This can in turn lead to content harm, and expensive relocation activities.
• Knowledge loss. Books, manuscripts, photographs, films, recordings and other archival collections contain a vast wealth of information that can be destroyed by fire.
• Injury or loss of life. The lives of staff and visitors can be endangered.
• Public relations impact. Staff and visitors expect safe conditions in heritage buildings. Those who donate or loan collections presume these items will be safeguarded. A severe fire could shake public confidence and cause a public relations impact.
• Building security. A fire represents the single greatest security threat! Given the same amount of time, an accidental or intentionally set fire can cause far greater harm to collections than the most accomplished thieves. Immense volumes of smoke and toxic gases can cause confusion and panic, thereby creating the ideal opportunity for unlawful entry and theft. Unrestricted firefighting operations will be necessary, adding to the security risk. Arson fires set to conceal a crime are common.

To minimize fire risk and its impact, heritage institutions should develop and implement comprehensive and objective fire protection programs. Program elements should include fire prevention efforts, building construction improvements, methods to detect a developing fire and alert emergency personnel, and means to effectively extinguish a fire. Each component is important toward overall accomplishment of the institution's fire safety goal. It is important for management to outline desired protection objectives during a fire and establish a program that addresses these goals. Therefore, the basic question to be asked by the property's managers is, "What maximum fire size and loss can the institution accept?" With this information, goal oriented protection can be implemented.
 

ABSTRACT

Cultural property management is entrusted with the responsibility of protecting and preserving an institution's buildings, collections, operations and occupants. Constant attention is required to minimize adverse impact due to climate, pollution, theft, vandalism, insects, mold and fire. Because of the speed and totality of the destructive forces of fire, it constitutes one of the more serious threats. Vandalized or environmentally damaged structures can be repaired and stolen objects recovered. Items destroyed by fire, however, are gone forever. An uncontrolled fire can obliterate an entire room's contents within a few minutes and completely burn out a building in a couple hours.

The first step toward halting a fire is to properly identify the incident, raise the occupant alarm, and then notify emergency response professionals. This is often the function of the fire detection and alarm system. Several system types and options are available, depending on the specific characteristics of the protected space.

Fire protection experts generally agree that automatic sprinklers represent one of the single, most significant aspects of a fire management program. Properly designed, installed, and maintained, these systems can overcome deficiencies in risk management, building construction, and emergency response. They may also provide enhanced flexibility of building design and increase the overall level of fire safety.

The following text presents an overview of fire detection, alarm and sprinkler systems including system types, components, operations, and answers to common anxieties.

Don’t not install smoke alarm detectors
A smoke detector gives early warning of a fire increasing the chances of escape.
They are so cheap and easy to fit you can have no excuses

Pop upstairs to retrieve heirlooms, passports and pets
Fire can spread very quickly blocking your escape route.
Keep that sort of stuff on the ground floor.
Even better in a secure safe or fireproof box
 

Open doors that have smoke billowing from the joints
Opening the door will add oxygen that will fuel the fire and cause a fireball that could take you off your feet for good.
A contained fire may burn out for lack of oxygen

Throw water on a chip pan fire
We all know water doesn’t mix with oil.
The burning oil will explode spreading the fire and engulfing you in the process.
If you are going to throw anything make it a purpose made fire blanket or use a class F extinguisher.

Try and escape using a Lift
The electric circuits are often the first to blow.
Being trapped in a lift in a fire could roast you alive.
Always use the stairwells.

Jump from an upstairs window
The fall could kill you.
Use blankets as a rope and throw mattresses out to cushion the landing or better still use a purpose made escape ladder.
 

Hide in a cupboard or under the bed
Hard enough for the fire service without having to play hide and seek and it won’t save you from the smoke and heat.
 

Smoke cigarettes in bed
A straight forward no-brainer.

Store solvents and fuels indoors
An easy way to turn a small fire into an inferno.
Store flammable liquids in a secure cabinet preferably in an outbuilding.

Delay calling the Fire and Rescue Services
Don’t dilly dally.
Make them your first call to action.
Seconds save lives
 

Not the Original Article
 

Preventing Future House Fires

Form and practice your family's escape plan. 
The best way to prevent house fires is for your family to have a plan of escape in the event of a fire.
You should form your plan and practice it at least twice a year to get comfortable with the routine and to ensure that you'll be clear-headed enough to carry out your plan if the time ever comes.
Here are some things to keep in mind as you do this:
Plan to find two ways to escape from each room.
You should always look for a second way out in case the first way is blocked.
For example, if a door is blocked, you should find a way out through a window or a different door.
Practice escaping by crawling, being in the dark, and having your eyes closed.

Make sure your home is prepared. 
To make sure that your home is prepared for a house fire, check that your smoke detectors are functioning and always have fresh batteries, and make sure that your windows can be easily opened and that their screens can be quickly removed.
If you have windows with security bars, they must have quick release devices to allow them to be opened right away.
Everyone in your family should know how to open and close these windows.
If your home is prepared for a house fire, you'll greatly improve your chances of staying safe during one.
Buy collapsible ladders that are made by a nationally recognized laboratory (such as the Underwriters Laboratory, UL), in case you'll need them to get down from the roof.

Practice safe behaviours. 
To prevent your house from catching fire in the first place, there are some safety precautions that you should take:
Teach your children that fire is a tool, not a toy.
Always be in the kitchen when you're cooking something.
Don't leave cooking food unattended.
Do not smoke in the house.
Make sure you put out your cigarettes completely.
Dispose of any electronics with frayed wires, which could lead to a fire.
Avoid lighting candles unless they're directly in your light of vision.
Do not leave a lighted candle in a room where no one is.
always check that you have turned the gas off before leaving the kitchen.
try to use a lighter instead of matchsticks.

Not the Original Article
 

What to do Once You Exit Your Home

Do a head count. 
If anybody is missing, only re-enter the building if it is safe to do so.
Tell the first responders immediately on their arrival if you are afraid somebody is missing.
Likewise, if everybody is accounted for, let the fire responders know so that they're not sending people in endangering their lives looking for others.

Call your local emergency services number. 
Use your cellphone or call from a neighbor's house.

Do an injury assessment. 
After making the call and the resources are coming, it is time to check yourself and family members to make sure that there are no injuries.
If there are, do what you can to address that and when the fire department arrives, you can ask for directions and help.

Get away from the structure. 
Keep a safe distance between you and the fire.
Take the necessary measures after the house fire to be safe.

Not the Original Article

How to Keep Safe During a House Fire

Method 1

Keeping Safe in Your House During a Fire

React as soon as you hear your smoke alarm go off. 
Smoke from a fire will put you in deeper sleep.
If you hear your smoke detector or alarm going off and see fire, try to exit your home as safely as possible.
Do not try to grab your phone, valuables, or your other important possessions.
Your only concern is to get out of there as fast as possible.
Nothing else is as important as this.
You should be getting yourself and your family members out safely. If it's nighttime, yell loudly to get everyone up.
You may only have a few seconds to escape safely, so ignore all secondary concerns that have nothing to do with staying alive.
If you have escaped from a home fire, remember once you get out stay out and dial Triple Zero (000) or 911, depending on where you live.

Safely exit through doors. 
If you see smoke under a door, then you cannot go out that door, because smoke is toxic and fire is sure to follow.
If you don't see smoke, put the back of your hand up to the door to make sure it doesn't feel hot.
If the door feels cool, then open it slowly and pass through it.
If your door is open and there is a fire preventing you from exiting the room, close the door to protect yourself from the fire.
If the door is hot or there's smoke under it and there are no other doors to pass through, you will have to try to escape through a window. Be careful!

Protect yourself from smoke inhalation. 
Get low to the floor and crouch or crawl on your hands and knees to evade the smoke.
Though you may think that running is faster, encourage your family members to crouch or crawl, too.
Smoke inhalation causes people to become disoriented and can even render a person unconscious. Knowing this, you should cover your nose and mouth if you have to walk by or through a heavily smoke-filled room.
You can also place a shirt or a wet rag over your nose and mouth, but only if you have time.
This will only buy you a minute or so, which is not a lot of time, but it does help to filter those products of combustion which lead to smoke inhalation.

Stop, drop, and roll if your clothes catch fire. 
If your clothes catch fire, immediately stop what you're doing, drop flat to the ground, and roll around until you put the fire out.
Rolling around will smother the fire quickly.
Cover your face with your hands as you're rolling to protect yourself.
Avoid wearing synthetic fibers, as these can melt and stick to skin causing severe burns.

Ward off the smoke if you can't get out. 
If you can't escape your home and are waiting for help, don't panic.
You may not be able to get out, but you can still take some measures to ward off the smoke and stay safe.
Close your door and cover all vents and cracks around it with cloth or tape to keep the smoke out for as long as you can.
Whatever you do, don't panic.
You can always reclaim some measure of control, even if you feel trapped

Call for help from a second story window. 
If you are trapped in your second story room in the event of a fire, do what you can to get yourself to an area where people will be able to hear you or see you.
You can take a sheet or something else - white preferably - and hang it out the window to signify that you need help when the first responders get there.
Be sure to close the window -- leaving it open draws the fire towards the fresh oxygen.
Put something down to prevent the smoke from coming underneath the door, such as a towel or anything that you can find.

Escape from a second story window if you can. 
If you have a two-story house, you should have an escape ladder that you can throw out in case a fire or other problem happens.
If you really must get out of the window, look for a ledge and if there is a ledge, you can get yourself out onto the ledge facing the building. 
Always face the building structure when exiting a window on an upper floor.
From a second story, if you have to hang, you might get closer to the ground and you could potentially let go and fall to safety.
The truth of the matter is that you are probably a lot safer staying put and trying to compartmentalize by closing doors between you and the fire, prevent the smoke from coming into the room, and putting something over your nose and mouth to filter the air and hoping for the best.

Not the Original Article

What is Fire?
Typically, fire comes from a chemical reaction between oxygen in the atmosphere and some sort of fuel (wood or gasoline, for example).
Of course, wood and gasoline don't spontaneously catch on fire just because they're surrounded by oxygen.
For the combustion reaction to happen, you have to heat the fuel to its ignition temperature.
Here's the sequence of events in a typical wood fire:
Something heats the wood to a very high temperature.
The heat can come from lots of different things -- a match, focused light, friction, lightning, something else that is already burning.
When the wood reaches about 300 degrees Fahrenheit (150 degrees Celsius), the heat decomposes some of the cellulose material that makes up the wood.
Some of the decomposed material is released as volatile gases.
We know these gases as smoke.
Smoke is compounds of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen.
The rest of the material forms char, which is nearly pure carbon, and ash, which is all of the unburnable minerals in the wood (calcium, potassium, and so on).
The char is what you buy when you buy charcoal.
Charcoal is wood that has been heated to remove nearly all of the volatile gases and leave behind the carbon.
That is why a charcoal fire burns with no smoke.
The actual burning of wood then happens in two separate reactions:

• When the volatile gases are hot enough (about 500 degrees F (260 degrees C) for wood), the compound molecules break apart, and the atoms recombine with the oxygen to form water, carbon dioxide and other products. In other words, they burn.
• The carbon in the char combines with oxygen as well, and this is a much slower reaction. That is why charcoal in a BBQ can stay hot for a long time.

A side effect of these chemical reactions is a lot of heat.
The fact that the chemical reactions in a fire generate a lot of new heat is what sustains the fire.
Many fuels burn in one step.
Gasoline is a good example.
Heat vaporizes gasoline and it all burns as a volatile gas.
There is no char. Humans have also learned how to meter out the fuel and control a fire.
A candle is a tool for slowly vaporizing and burning wax.
As they heat up, the rising carbon atoms (as well as atoms of other material) emit light.
This "heat produces light" effect is called incandescence, and it is the same kind of thing that creates light in a light bulb. It is what causes the visible flame.
Flame color varies depending on what you're burning and how hot it is.
Color variation within in a flame is caused by uneven temperature.
Typically, the hottest part of a flame -- the base -- glows blue, and the cooler parts at the top glow orange or yellow.
In addition to emitting light, the rising carbon particles may collect on surrounding surfaces as soot.
The dangerous thing about the chemical reactions in fire is the fact that they are self-perpetuating.
The heat of the flame itself keeps the fuel at the ignition temperature, so it continues to burn as long as there is fuel and oxygen around it.
The flame heats any surrounding fuel so it releases gases as well. When the flame ignites the gases, the fire spreads.
On Earth, gravity determines how the flame burns.
All the hot gases in the flame are much hotter (and less dense) than the surrounding air, so they move upward toward lower pressure.
This is why fire typically spreads upward, and it's also why flames are always "pointed" at the top.
If you were to light a fire in a microgravity environment, say onboard the space shuttle, it would form a sphere!

Fire Variables
In the last section, we saw that fire is the result of a chemical reaction between two gases, typically oxygen and a fuel gas.
The fuel gas is created by heat.
In other words, with heat providing the necessary energy, atoms in one gaseous compound break their bonds with each other and recombine with available oxygen atoms in the air to form new compounds plus lots more heat.
Only some compounds will readily break apart and recombine in this way -- the various atoms have to be attracted to each other in the right manner.
For example, when you boil water, it takes the gaseous form of steam, but this gas doesn't react with oxygen in the air.
There isn't a strong enough attraction between the two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom in a water molecule and the two oxygen atoms in an oxygen molecule, so the water compound doesn't break apart and recombine.
The most flammable compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, which recombine with oxygen relatively easily to form carbon dioxide, water and other gases.
Different flammable fuels catch fire at different temperatures.
It takes a certain amount of heat energy to change any particular material into a gas, and even more heat energy to trigger the reaction with oxygen.
The necessary heat level varies depending on the nature of the molecules that make up the fuel.
A fuel's piloted ignition temperature is the heat level required to form a gas that will ignite when exposed to a spark.
At the unpiloted ignition temperature, which is much higher, the fuel ignites without a spark.
The fuel's size also affects how easily it will catch fire.
A larger fuel, such as a thick tree, can absorb a lot of heat, so it takes a lot more energy to raise any particular piece to the ignition temperature.
A toothpick catches fire more easily because it heats up very quickly.
A fuel's heat production depends on how much energy the gases release in the combustion reaction and how quickly the fuel burns.
Both factors largely depend on the fuel's composition.
Some compounds react with oxygen in such a way that there is a lot of "extra heat energy" left over.
Others emit a smaller amount of energy.
Similarly, the fuel's reaction with oxygen may happen very quickly, or it may happen more slowly.
The fuel's shape also affects burning speed.
Thin pieces of fuel burn more quickly than larger pieces because a larger proportion of their mass is exposed to oxygen at any moment.
For example, you could burn up a pile of wood splinters or paper much more quickly than you could a block of wood with the same mass, because splinters and paper have a much greater surface area.
In this way, fires from different fuels are like different species of animal -- they all behave a little differently.
Experts can often figure out how a fire started by observing how it affected the surrounding areas.
A fire from a fast-burning fuel that produces a lot of heat will inflict a different sort of damage than a slow-burning, low-heat fire.
 
Not the Original Article

Cooking equipment is the leading cause of home structure fires and home fire injuries. 

Smoking is the leading cause of civilian home fire deaths.
Heating equipment is the second most common cause of home fire fatalities.

What you should know about home cooking safety

• Be on alert! If you are sleepy or have consumed alcohol, don’t use the stove or stovetop.
• Stay in the kitchen while you are frying, grilling, boiling, or broiling food.
• If you are simmering, baking, or roasting food, check it regularly, remain in the kitchen while food is cooking, and use a timer to remind you that you are cooking.
• Keep anything that can catch fire — oven mitts, wooden utensils, food packaging, towels or curtains — away from your stovetop.

If you have a cooking fire

• Just get out! When you leave, close the door behind you to help contain the fire.
• Call 9-1-1 or the local emergency number after you leave.
• If you try to fight the fire, be sure others are getting out and you have a clear way out.
• Keep a lid nearby when you’re cooking to smother small grease fires. Smother the fire by sliding the lid over the pan and turn off the stovetop. Leave the pan covered until it is completely cooled.
• For an oven fire, turn off the heat and keep the door closed.

Cooking fires by the numbers

• Cooking equipment is the leading cause of home* fires and fire injuries, causing 47% of home fires that resulted in 20% of the home fire deaths and 45% of the injuries.
• Two-thirds (66%) of home cooking fires start with the ignition of food or other cooking materials.
• Clothing is the item first ignited in less than 1% of these fires, but clothing ignitions lead to 18% of the home cooking equipment fire deaths.
• Ranges or cooktops account for the majority (62%) of home cooking fire incidents.
• Unattended equipment is a factor in one-third (33%) of reported home cooking fires and half (43%) of the associated deaths.
• Frying dominates the cooking fire problem.
• Thanksgiving is the peak day for home cooking fires, followed by Christmas Day and Christmas Eve.

Safety considerations for cooking with oil

• Always stay in the kitchen when frying on the stovetop.
• Keep an eye on what you fry. If you see wisps of smoke or the oil smells, immediately turn off the burner and/or carefully remove the pan from the burner. Smoke is a danger sign that the oil is too hot.
• Heat the oil slowly to the temperature you need for frying or sautéing.
• Add food gently to the pot or pan so the oil does not splatter.
• Always cook with a lid beside your pan. If you have a fire, slide the lid over the pan and turn off the burner. Do not remove the cover because the fire could start again. Let the pan cool for a long time. Never throw water or use a fire extinguisher on the fire.
• If the fire does not go out or you don’t feel comfortable sliding a lid over the pan, get everyone out of your home. Call the fire department from outside. 

 Not the Original Article

Can a fire burn in a room with no oxygen?
A fire cannot burn without oxygen.
You can show this for yourself, in fact: if you light a small candle and then put a clear glass upside-down over that candle (without touching the flame), you can watch the flame slowly extinguish as it uses up all of the oxygen that you have trapped around it with the glass.

 What if in that same room, with no oxygen, is it possible for a hydrogen reaction fire to start, like the sun?
The way the Sun "burns" fuel is completely different from the way a fire on Earth burns (the term "burning" is a bit misleading when used to talk about stars).
The Sun gets its energy by smashing small light elements together to make heavier elements; most of a star's life is spent smashing hydrogen atoms together to make helium.
The burning that a star does, then, is a nuclear reaction, and not a chemical one like the fires on Earth (when a candle burns, the atoms themselves remain unchanged: just the molecules are affected).

 If not, how did the sun start to burn without oxygen?
So, the Sun can "burn" hydrogen to helium without the need for oxygen.
It should be noted that in the presence of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, stars heavier than the Sun may burn hydrogen to helium by using the C, N and O as catalysts.
Even in these stars, however, an absence of oxygen does not prevent nuclear burning.

Not the Original Article

Did you know that if a fire starts in your home you may have as little as two minutes to escape? 
During a fire, early warning from a working smoke alarm plus a fire escape plan that has been practiced regularly can save lives.
Learn what else to do to keep your loved ones safe!

Top Tips for Fire Safety

Install smoke alarms on every level of your home, inside bedrooms and outside sleeping areas.
 
Test smoke alarms every month. If they’re not working, change the batteries.
 
Talk with all family members about a fire escape plan and practice the plan twice a year.
 
If a fire occurs in your home, GET OUT, STAY OUT and CALL FOR HELP. Never go back inside for anything or anyone.

Fire safety

Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire.
Fire safety measures include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those that are used to limit the development and effects of a fire after it starts.
Fire safety measures include those that are planned during the construction of a building or implemented in structures that are already standing, and those that are taught to occupants of the building.
Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire hazards.
A fire hazard may include a situation that increases the likelihood of a fire or may impede escape in the event a fire occurs.
Fire safety is often a component of building safety.
Those who inspect buildings for violations of the Fire Code and go into schools to educate children on Fire Safety topics are fire department members known as Fire Prevention Officers.
The Chief Fire Prevention Officer or Chief of Fire Prevention will normally train newcomers to the Fire Prevention Division and may also conduct inspections or make presentations.

Elements of a fire safety policy

Fire safety policies apply at the construction of a building and throughout its operating life. 
Building codes are enacted by local, sub-national, or national governments to ensure such features as adequate fire exits, signage, and construction details such as fire stops and fire rated doors, windows, and walls.
Fire safety is also an objective of electrical codes to prevent overheating of wiring or equipment, and to protect from ignition by electrical faults.
Fire codes regulate such requirements as the maximum occupancy for buildings such as theatres or restaurants, for example.
Fire codes may require portable fire extinguishers within a building, or may require permanently installed fire detection and suppression equipment such as a fire sprinkler system and a fire alarm system.
Local authorities charged with fire safety may conduct regular inspections for such items as usable fire exits and proper exit signage, functional fire extinguishers of the correct type in accessible places, and proper storage and handling of flammable materials. Depending on local regulations, a fire inspection may result in a notice of required action, or closing of a building until it can be put into compliance with fire code requirements.
Owners and managers of a building may implement additional fire policies.
For example, an industrial site may designate and train particular employees as a fire fighting force.
Managers must ensure buildings comply with evacuation, and that building features such as spray fireproofing remains undamaged.
Fire policies may be in place to dictate training and awareness of occupants and users of the building to avoid obvious mistakes, such as the propping open of fire doors.
Buildings, especially institutions such as schools, may conduct fire drills at regular intervals throughout the year.
 
Not the Original Article

Fire fighting may seem like something that is unnecessary or no longer useful, but it will save lives and precious possessions when a fire does strike due to natural or manmade causes. 
Training for situations like these can make the difference between life and death.

More than 80% of fire related deaths occur in the house and in a home devoid of a fire sprinkler system.
These fires can spread through a house before you have time to do anything about it.
This fact alone proves the need for fire fighting courses and training in South Africa.
Below are some common causes of fire along with  remedies on how to reduce fire hazards:

1. Walking away from the kitchen when cooking with gas: The kitchen is repeatedly the most fire-prone place in the home.
Unattended toasters as well as hotplates, bowls which are not microwave resistant, and cookbooks close to naked gas flames are common causes of fire hazards.

2. The electrical cords in your home is depleted: Frayed or chewed electrical cords result in a lot of house fires. Uncovered electrical wire on your floor or rug can catch flame in seconds.
Pets frequently chew up electrical cords which causes severe fire dangers.

3. Overloading your power strips: Overloading of power strips can cause fire.
When overloaded, these power strips can spark.
If they are somewhere near a flammable object, a fire is very probable making this a serious hazard.

4. Buying a faulty electrical appliance: Malfunctioning electrical equipment is a huge cause of fire.
A lot of us own many electrical appliances, some of which can fault at any time.
Sparks from defective toasters, televisions, coffee makers, PC monitors, or any other electrical appliance can cause severe common hazards.

5. When we put something combustible near something hot: Putting something flammable close to a source of heat is a rapid way to begin a fire.
A few dangerous examples comprise lamp shades that rest too near to the bulb, clothes or drapes too near to a radiator, or any combustible material near to a space heater.

6. When we leave a candle unattended for sometime: Candles result in a lot of fire cases every year.
Even with a protected holder, candles must never be left unattended. It merely takes a few minutes for a pet or child to blow the candle or have it near a flammable object.

7. Using a fireplace or wood stove in the wrong way: Fireplaces as well as wood stoves can be a source of fire hazards when they are not correctly used.
Ensure that your chimney is apparent and clean prior to burning anything.
Do not throw away the ashes until they are 100% cool, even the smallest smoldering coal could effortlessly start a fire in your garbage bin.

8. Leaving burning cigarettes: Cigarettes are a massive source of any fire hazard.
Smoking on the couch, leaving a pipe or a cigarette carelessly or baring ashtray contents prior to getting cool cause a lot of fires every year.
Once begun, a fire can temper out of control in seconds.
Lots of people never realize how rapidly a fire can extend but a little fire can turn out to be a huge one. 
Taking a training or fire fighting course can increase your chances of surviving a fire and protecting property. Join us for a fire fighting course.
 
Not the Original Article

Fire makes water. Fire is a tree running in reverse. Fire is not a thing at all.

1  Fire is an event, not a thing. Heating wood or other fuel releases volatile vapors that can rapidly combust with oxygen in the air; the resulting incandescent bloom of gas further heats the fuel, releasing more vapors and perpetuating the cycle.

2  Most of the fuels we use derive their energy from trapped solar rays. In photosynthesis, sunlight and heat make chemical energy (in the form of wood or fossil fuel); fire uses chemical energy to produce light and heat.

3  So a bonfire is basically a tree running in reverse.

4  Assuming stable fuel, heat, and oxygen levels, a typical house fire will double in size every minute.

5  Earth is the only known planet where fire can burn. Everywhere else: Not enough oxygen.

6  Conversely, the more oxygen, the hotter the fire. Air is 21 percent oxygen; combine pure oxygen with acetylene, a chemical relative of methane, and you get an oxyacetylene welding torch that burns at over 5,500 degrees Fahrenheit—the hottest fire you are likely to encounter.

7  Oxygen supply influences the color of the flame. A low-oxygen fire contains lots of uncombusted fuel particles and will give off a yellow glow. A high-oxygen fire burns blue.

8  So candle flames are blue at the bottom because that’s where they take up fresh air, and yellow at the top because the rising fumes from below partly suffocate the upper part of the flame.

9  Fire makes water? It’s true. Place a cold spoon over a candle and you will observe the water vapor condense on the metal...

10 ...because wax—like most organic materials, including wood and gasoline—contains hydrogen, which bonds with oxygen to make H2O when it burns. Water comes out your car’s tailpipe, too.

11  We’ve been at this a long time: Charred bones and wood ash indicate that early hominids were tending the first intentional fires more than 400,000 years ago.

12  Nature’s been at it awhile, too. A coal seam about 140 miles north of Sydney, Australia, has been burning by some estimates for 500,000 years.

13  The ancient Greeks started fire with concentrated sunlight. A parabolic mirror that focuses solar rays is still used to ignite the Olympic torch.

14  Every 52 years, when their calendar completed a cycle, the Aztecs would extinguish every flame in the empire. The high priest would start a new fire on the ripped-open chest of a sacrificial victim. Fires fed from this flame would be distributed throughout the land.

15  Good burn: The 1666 Great Fire of London destroyed 80 percent of the city but also ended an outbreak of bubonic plague that had killed more than 65,000 people the previous year. The fire fried the rats and fleas that carried Yersinia pestis, the plague-causing bacterium.

16  The Peshtigo Fire in Wisconsin was the second deadliest blaze in United States history, taking 1,200 lives—four times as many as the Great Chicago Fire. Both conflagrations broke out on the same day: October 8, 1871.

17  America’s deadliest fire took place April 27, 1865, aboard the steamship Sultana. Among other passengers were 1,500 recently released Union prisoners traveling home up the Mississippi when the boilers exploded. The ship was six times over capacity, which helps explain the death toll of 1,547.

18  The Black Dragon Fire of 1987, the largest wildfire in modern times, burned some 20 million acres across China and the Soviet Union, an area about the size of South Carolina.

19  Spontaneous combustion is real. Some fuel sources can generate their own heat—by rotting, for instance. Pistachios have so much natural oil and are so prone to heat-generating fat decomposition that the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code regards them as dangerous.

20  Haystacks, compost heaps, and even piles of old newspapers and magazines can also burst into flame. A good reason to recycle DISCOVER when you are done.
 

Class A:
Class A fires involve solid materials of an organic nature such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber and plastics that do not melt.

Class B:
Class B fires involves liquids. They include petrol, diesel, thinners, oils, paints, wax, cooking fat and plastics that melt.

Class C:
Class C fires involve electricity.

Class D:
Class D fires involve flammable metals such as magnesium, aluminium, titanium, sodium and potassium.

Each type of fire poses their own particular risk.

Not the Original Article

Fire safety information saves lives. It’s as simple as that. Whether it’s in your own home or in your place of employment, education and clear markings of important fire hazards and safety equipment can prevent injuries and save structures as long as people are well aware of everything they need to know.
Depending upon the environment where you are living or working will dictate how much communication is needed. Larger buildings, including tall apartment buildings, require more complexity and greater clarity, in order to keep everyone safe in the event of an emergency.

What types of information should people be aware of? Firstly, the most important thing to do in the event of a fire is to exit the building in a safe and orderly manner.

In order to accomplish this, everyone should be aware of all the fire exits.
This should include advising people to not take elevators when leaving a building.

People should also be aware of what a fire alarm sounds like in order to make sure everyone is clear what the appropriate response is in the event that is activated.

This includes advising everyone on whether sprinklers and other devices will activate as this can often be surprise to many.

People should also be aware of any fire hazards. This includes basic electrical equipment that many homes and offices have such as a coffeemaker.

These devices can generate a large amount of heat and cause fires if left on. Devices like these should be indicated as hazards and switched off when not in use.

Certain work environments and homes also include possible fire hazards in the form of open flames and large electrical equipment that can catch fire. Identify these to everyone who lives and works around them.

All fire safety equipment should be clearly labeled and easily accessible.

Whether at home or at work, everyone who is inside a building, even visitors, should be immediately able to tell where fire extinguishers and other fire safety products are as well as instructions on how to use them.

These can prevent major structures fires.

Finally, proper safety protocol such as stop-drop-and-roll maneuvers should be taught to everyone.

These too can save lives and posters explaining the proper response to such emergencies should be clear and available for everyone to see.

Regular training of family or personal should occur often to keep everything fresh in their minds and prepare them for a dangerous emergency.

Basic Safety
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Rules
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Tape
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Tips
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Not the Original Article